FARMING  FOR  PROFIT 

LIVE  STOCK 
AND 

DAIRY  FARMING 


FRANK  D.GARDNER 


TEAM  OF 

This  type  of  draft  horse  is  noted  for  its  great  power,  good  action  and  intelligence. 
Its  native  country  is  France. 


i  Courtesy  of  "  The  Field.  Illustrated."  N.  Y. 


FARMING    FOR    PROFIT 

LIVE   STOCK 


AND 


DAIRY   FARMING 

A  NON-TECHNICAL  MANUAL  FOR  THE  SUCCESSFUL  BREED- 
ING, CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  FARM  ANIMALS,  THE 
DAIRY  HERD,  AND  THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  DAIRY  PRODUCTION 


BY 


FRANK  D.  (GARDNER 

PROFESSOR    OF    AGRONOMY,  PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  COLLEGE 


ASSISTED  BY 

W.  H.  TOMHAVE  T.  C.  STONE 

Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry,  Pennsylvania  Instructor  in  Animal  Husbandry,  Ohio  State 

State  College  University 


DR.  H.  S.  GRINDLEY 

Professor  of  Animal  Nutrition,  University  of  Illinois 

SLEETER  BULL 

Associate  Professor  of  Animal  Nutrition,  University 
of  Illinois 

E.  H.  HUGHES 

Assistant  Professor  in  Animal  Husbandry,  College  of 
Agriculture,   University  of  Missouri 

W.  A.  COCHEL 

Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry,  Kansas  Agricul- 
tural College 

JOHN  M.  EVVARD 

Chief  in  Swine  Production,  Animal  Husbandry  Sec- 
tion, Iowa  Experiment  Station 


M.  C.  KILPATRICK 

Instructor  in  Poultry  Husbandry.  Ohio  State 
University 

F.  S.  PUTNEY 

Assistant  Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry,  Pennsyl- 
vania State  College 

C.  W.  LARSON 

Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry,  Pennsylvania  State 
College 

GEORGE  C.  HUMPHREY 

Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry,   University  of 
Wisconsin 

ERNEST  L.  ANTHONY 

Assistant  Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry,  Pennsyl- 
vania State  College 


ILLUSTRATED 


THE   JOHN    C.   WINSTON    COMPANY 
PHILADELPHIA  CHICAGO 


'LTURE  D 


Copyright,  19  18,  by 
THE  JOHN  C.  WINSTON  COMPANY 


Copyright,  1916,  by 
L.  T.  MYERS 


PREFACE 


This  book  is  written  for  amateur  as  well  as  professional  livestock  and 
dairy  farmers.  It  makes  a  popular  appeal  to  all  men  engaged  in  animal 
and  dairy  husbandry. 

Ages  of  farm  experience  have  given  us  a  vast  store  of  practical  knowl- 
edge on  the  raising  of  crops  and  animals.  This  knowledge  is  scattered 
through  many  volumes  on  different  phases  of  the  subject,  in  experiment 
station  bulletins,  agricultural  journals  and  encyclopedias.  The  important 
facts  on  which  the  most  successful  livestock  and  dairy  farming  is  based 
are  here  brought  together  in  orderly  and  readable  form.  Not  only  are 
directions  given  for  the  management  and  care  of  farm  animals  but  the 
business  end  of  the  problem  is  fully  discussed,  showing  why  some  achieve 
success  and  why  others  fail. 

The  subject-matter  is  arranged  in  several  parts  of  a  number  of  chapters 
each,  and  by  referring  to  the  Table  of  Contents  any  subject  may  be  quickly 
found.  Each  department  has  been  prepared  by  a  specialist  in  the  subject 
presented.  The  name  of  the  author  appears  at  the  beginning  of  each 
chapter.  Those  unacknowledged  have  been  prepared  by  myself. 

The  illustrations  have  been  secured  from  many  sources.  Due  credit 
has  been  given  these. 

Special  acknowledgment  is  due  the  publishers  of  this  volume  and 
the  other  volumes  in  the  series  for  its  conception,  and  for  many  helpful 
suggestions  in  the  presentation  of  the  subject-matter. 

I  wish  also  to  especially  acknowledge  the  valuable  editorial  assistance 
of  my  wife  in  the  preparation  of  the  manuscript. 

FRANK  D.  GARDNER 


415292 


(5) 


CONTENTS 


PART  I.    LIVESTOCK  FARMING  (ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY) 

Chapter  1.      ADVANTAGES   AND    DISADVANTAGES    OF    KEEPING   LIVE 

STOCK 15 

Value  and  importance  of  livestock. 

Advantages  of  Livestock. 

Animals  furnish  food,  labor  and  clothing — Animals  make  use  of  land  otherwise 
unproductive — Animals  utilize  crops  that  would  be  wholly  or  partly  wasted — 
Animals  transform  coarse,  bulky  products  into  concentrated  form — Animals 
return  fertility  to  the  soil — Livestock  facilitate  good  crop  rotations — Capital  more 
fully  used — Livestock  call  for  higher  skill — More  land  may  be  farmed  with  the 
same  labor. 

Disadvantages  of  Livestock. 

Animals  require  larger  capital — Capital  of  perishable  nature — Products  cannot 
be  indefinitely  held — Crop  failures  may  cause  loss  on  livestock. 

Chapter  2.    BREEDING,  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  FARM  ANIMALS. .     21 

Breeding  of  Livestock. 

History  of  animal  breeding — Lines  of  breeding — Selection  of  a  breed — Pedigree — 
Gestation  period. 

Care  of  Livestock. 

Preparation  of  feeds — Feeding  cpndimental  stock  feeds — Care  of  the  breeding 
herd — Care  of  work  animals — Assist  animals  at  time  of  giving  birth  to  their  young. 

Management  of  Livestock. 

Open  sheds — Arrangement  of  labor — The  kind  of  farm  animals — Regularity  in 
feeding  and  watering — Observing  individuals — Keep  up  records — Preparation 
and  shipping  livestock. 

Chapter  3.    FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 30 

Introduction — Chemical  composition  of  feeding-stuffs — Water — Mineral  matter — 
Crude  protein — Carbohydrates — The  fats — Digestion  of  the  nutrients — The 
nutritive  ratio — The  energy  value  of  feeding-stuffs — Feeding-stuffs — Concen- 
trates— Roughages — The  requirements  of  farm  animals — The  balanced  ration — 
The  Wolff-Lehmann  standards — The  Armsby  standards — The  Haecker  standard 
for  dairy  cows. 

Chapter  4.    HORSES  AND   MULES 41 

Development  of  type — The  light  horse — Draft  type — The  mule — Market  require- 
ments— The  age  of  the  horse — Horse  feedings — Feeds  for  the  horse — Grain — 
Roughages— Watering — The  work  horse — The  foal — The  orphan  foal — The  brood 
mare — The  stallion. 

Standard  Rations. 
Foals — Work  horses — Brood  mare — Grooming. 

Chapter  5.    BEEF  CATTLE 52 

Sources  of  profit — Breeding  pure-bred  cattle — Producing  stockers  and  feeders — 
Grazing  cattle— Fattening  cattle — Fitting  show  animals. 

(7) 


; : CONTENTS 


The  Selection  of  Cattle  for  the  Feedlot. 

Methods  of  feeding — Characteristics  of  good  feeders — Kind  of  feed  related  to  class 
of  cattle — Calves  and  yearlings — Time  to  market. 

The  Deficiency  in  the  Meat  Supply. 

Tenant  farming  unfavorable  to  beef  production  —  Breeding  cattle  require 
capital. 

Chapter  6.    SWINE 61 

Personal  preference — Feeds  available — Location  and  climate — Distribution — 
Markets — Breeds  of  swine — Grading  up  the  herd — Age  of  breeding  stock — Hous- 
ing— Feeds  for  swine — Preparation  of  feeds — Hand  vs.  self -feeding — Feed  for  the 
brood  sows — Feeding  the  pigs — Suggested  successful  rations. 

Chapter  7.    SHEEP  AND   GOATS 75 

Early  importance  of  sheep — The  sheep  of  Spain — The  sheep  of  England — Breeds 
of  sheep. 

Long  Wool  Breeds. 

Leicester — Cotswold — Lincoln. 

Medium  Wool  Breeds. 

Southdown — Shropshire — Oxfords — Hampshires — Dorset  horn — Cheviot . 
Fine  wool  or  merino  sheep — Establishing  a  flock — Essentials  to  success — The 
breeding  season — Period  of  gestation — Care  of  ram  during  breeding  season — 
Winter  care  of  ewes — Care  of  young  lambs — Marketing  the  lambs — Shearing  the 
flock — Dipping  the  flock. 

Chapter  8.     THE  FARM  FLOCK    (POULTRY) 86 

Importance  of  the  farm  flock — The  size  of  the  farm  flock — Sources  of  income — 
Advantages  of  pure-bred  poultry — Grading  up  a  farm  flock — The  choice  of  a  variety 
— Selection  of  the  breeding  stock — Housing  the  breeding  stock — Selection  of  eggs 
for  hatching — Care  of  eggs  for  hatching — Natural  or  artificial  incubation — Hatch- 
ing with  hens — Hatching  with  incubators. 

Brooding. 

Importance  of  the  brooder — Qualifications  of  a  good  brooder — Management  of  the 
brooder — Ration  for  chicks — The  care  of  growing  chicks — The  care  of  the 
pullets — Feeding  mature  fowls — The  care  of  market  eggs. 

Chapter  9.    BEES 99 

Breeds  of  bees — Personnel  and  activity  of  colony — Size  and  location  of  apiary — 
Shade  and  ventilation — Stocking  the  apiary — Introducing  a  new  queen — Uniting 
and  transferring  colonies — General  methods  of  handling — Swarming — How  to 
prevent  swarming — Wintering  of  bees — Bee  feeding — Hives — Foundation  combs — 
Handling  and  marketing — Diseases  of  bees. 

PART  H.    DAIRY  FARMING  (DAIRY  HUSBANDRY) 

Chapter  10.  THE  DAIRY  HERD;  ITS  SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT  .111 
Scrubs,  grades,  crosses  and  pure-breds — Value  of  pedigrees — Breed  differences — 
A  standard  of  production  necessary — Individual  selection — Records — Cow-testing 
association  records — Bull  associations — Advanced  registry  records — The  bull  is 
half  the  herd — Buying  cows  or  raising  calves — Developing  the  young  animal — 
Open  stables  for  heifers. 

Chapter  11.    DAIRY  HERD   MANAGEMENT 119 

Age  to  breed — Gestation  period — Regularity — Care  of  cow  at  calving  time — Rest 
for  dairy  cows — Care  of  cows  when  dry — Exercise — Grooming — Milking — Difficult 
milking — Abuse — Water  and  salt — Stabling — Flies — Marking  the  cow — Dehorn- 
ing— Care  of  the  bull. 


CONTENTS  9 


Chapter  12.     DAIRY  BREEDS   OF   CATTLE 126 

Dairy  breeds  essential — Dairy  type  common  to  all  dairy  breeds — Recognized 
dairy  breeds  of  America. 

Ayrshire  Cattle. 
Origin  and  development — Characteristics  of  Ayrshire  cattle. 

Brown  Swiss  Cattle. 
Origin  and  development — Characteristics  of  Brown  Swiss  cattle. 

Guernsey  Cattle. 
Origin  and  development — Characteristics  of  Guernsey  cattle. 

Holstein-Friesian. 
Origin  and  development — Characteristics  of  Holstein-Friesian  cattle. 

Jersey  Cattle. 
Origin  and  development — Characteristics  of  Jersey  cattle. 

Other  Dairy  Breeds. 
Dairy  Breed  Organization  in  America. 

Chapter  13.     CLEAN   MILK   PRODUCTION 140 

Classes  of  Milk. 

Sanitary  milk — Guaranteed  milk — Standardized  milk — Certified  milk — Inspected 
milk — Pasteurized  milk — Modified  milk. 

Equipment  and  Methods. 

Clean,  healthy  cows — Stables — Milkers — Small  top  milk  pails — Clean  tinware — 
Strainers — Handling  the  milk — Coolers — Suggestions  for  improvement. 

Chapter  14.     DAIRY  BUTTER-MAKING 147 

Adaptation — The  need  for  dairy  farming — The  types  of  dairy  farming — Market 
milk — Farm  cheese  making — Farm  butter  making — Control  of  products — Cleanli- 
ness necessary — Percentage  of  fat  in  cream — Thin  cream  undesirable — Methods 
of  ripening  cream — Amount  of  acid  to  develop,  or  degree  of  ripening — The  use  of 
starters — Natural  starter — The  amount  of  starter  to  use — Churning  temperatures 
— Variations  in  churning  temperature — Care  of  the  churn — Length  of  time  to 
churn — Washing  butter — Temperature  of  wash  water — Preparation  of  working 
board — Salting — Working  of  butter — Wrapping  of  butter — Value  of  standard 
product — Care  of  the  farm  churn — Dairy  apparatus — Care  of  other  dairy  apparatus 
— Churns — Buckets  and  tinware — Wooden  apparatus. 

PART  III.    ANIMAL  DISEASES,  CROPPING  AND  FEEDING 

SYSTEMS 

Chapter  15.     DISEASES   OF  ANIMALS  AND   THEIR  MANAGEMENT 161 

The  essentials  to  health — Knowledge  of  disease  should  precede  treatment — General 
rules  for  maintaining  health — Comfort — Exercise — General  Management — Nursing 
— Disease — Examination  of  sick  animals — Rational  measures  for  treatment. 

Chapter  16.     CROPPING  AND   FEEDING   SYSTEMS 170 

The  farm  scheme — Crops  related  to  farm  management — Animals  related  to  farm 
management — Cropping  and  feeding  systems  are  related — Adaptation  of  cropping 
and  feeding  systems — Cropping  systems  related  to  food — Crop  rotations — Crops 
for  cash  or  for  feed— Crops  related  to  feed  requirements — Changing  cropping  system 
-  Two  rotations  on  the  same  farm  —  Combining  fields  —  Fixed  rotations  with 
irregular  areas — Feeding  systems — Feeding  system  depends  on  type  of  farming — 
Feeding  system  related  to  cost  of  production — Feed  units — Profits  from  cheap 
crop  products — Livestock  gains  in  relation  to  feed — Corn  silage  as  base  for  ration 
— Balanced  rations. 


10  CONTENTS 


PART  IV.    TABLES  OF  AGRICULTURAL  STATISTICS 

TABULAR  STATEMENTS 183 

TABLE        I.   Percentage  of  total  dry  matter  and  digestible  nutrients  in  feeding-stuffs. 
TABLE       II.    Dry  matter,  digestible  protein,  and  net  energy  per  100  pounds  of  feed. 

(Armsby.) 
TABLE     III.    Wolff-Lehmann   feeding   standards.      (Showing   amounts   of   nutrients 

per  day  per  1000  pounds  live  weight.) 
TABLE      IV.    Armsby  feeding  standards. 
TABLE       V.    Haecker's  standard  for  milk  production. 
TABLE     VI.    Percentage  composition  of  agricultural  products. 
TABLE    VII.    Composition  and  amounts  of  manure  produced  by  different  kinds  of 

farm  animals. 
TABLE  VIII.    List  of  agricultural  colleges  and   experiment  stations  in  the  United 

States. 
TABLE      IX.  How  to  estimate  amount  of  grain  in  bins  and  hay  in  mow  or  stack. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


TEAM  OF  PERCHERONS  (Color  Plate) Frontispiece 

PAGE 

UTILIZING  WOODLAND  FOR  PASTURE 17 

LIVESTOCK  AND  THE  SILO  INCREASE  THE  PROFITS  ON  HIGH-PRICED  LAND 18 

Two   PURE-BRED   BULLS.     POLLED  ANGUS  ON  THE   LEFT,   SHORTHORN  ON  THE 

RIGHT 22 

PURE-BRED  SHORTHORN  BULL 23 

OPEN  SHEDS  FOR  STEER  FEEDING 27 

THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT  OF  A  Cow 32 

THE  RESPIRATION  CALORIMETER  IN  USE  FOR  AN  EXPERIMENT 34 

MORGAN  STALLION,  "GENERAL  GATES" 41 

A  HIGH-GRADE  WORK  HORSE  OF  FINE  QUALITY  AND  GOOD  CONFORMATION  ....  42 

PERCHERON  STALLION 43 

ENGLISH  SHIRE  STALLION 45 

PHOTOGRAPHS  SHOWING  TEETH  AT  VARIOUS  STAGES 47,  48 

PURE-BRED  HEREFORD  BULL * 52 

THE  PRINCIPAL  CUTS  OF  BEEF 56 

CHESTER  WHITE  BOAR 61 

POLAND-CHINA  BOAR 62 

POLAND-CHINA  Sow 62 

DUROC-JERSEY  BOAR 62 

DUROC- JERSEY  Sow 62 

CHESTER  WHITE  Sows 63 

HAMPSHIRE  BOAR 64 

HAMPSHIRE  Sow 64 

YORKSHIRE  BOAR 64 

YORKSHIRE  Sow 64 

TAMWORTH  BOAR 66 

TAMWORTH  Sow 66 

BERKSHIRE  BOAR 66 

BERKSHIRE  Sow 66 

A  TYPICAL  COTSWOLD  EWE 75 

A  TYPICAL  LINCOLN  EWE 76 

A  TYPICAL  SHROPSHIRE 77 

A  TYPICAL  CHEVIOT 78 

A  TYPICAL  MERINO 79 

A  TYPICAL  FLOCK  OF  SHEEP  IN  PASTURE 80 

A  GOOD  FLOCK  OF  SHEEP 82 

AN  ANGORA  BUCK 84 

A  TYPICAL  FARM  FLOCK 87 

BUFF  ORPINGTONS 88 

(11) 


12  LIST     OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

WHITE  PLYMOUTH  ROCKS 88 

SINGLE  COMB  RHODE  ISLAND  REDS 90 

WHITE  WYANDOTTES 90 

A  BROODER  HEATED  BY  OIL  LAMP 93 

SHIPPING  CASES  FOR  EGGS 97 

THE  HONEY  BEE 100 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  AN  APIARY 101 

A  MODERN  BEE  HIVE 102 

QUEEN  CELLS 105 

A  TYPICAL  Cow,  MARKED  TO  SHOW  POINTS  IN  JUDGING 113 

A  GOOD  DAIRY  HERD 115 

AN  OPEN  STABLE  FOR  HEIFERS 116 

A  GOOD  Cow  STABLE 120 

LEADING  A  BULL 124 

A  TYPICAL  AYRSHIRE  Cow 127 

A  BROWN  Swiss  Cow 129 

A  GUERNSEY  BULL 130 

A  TYPICAL  GUERNSEY  Cow 130 

A  TYPICAL  HOLSTEIN  Cow 132 

A  HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN  BULL 132 

HOLSTEIN-FREESIAN  BULL  AND  Cows  (Color  Plate} 134 

A  JERSEY  Cow 135 

MILK  PAILS  OF  BEST  DESIGN 142 

A  CLEAN  MILKER  IN  A  CLEAN  STABLE  AT  MILKING  TIME 145 

A  GOOD  TYPE  OF  DAIRY  HOUSE 148 

A  GOOD  TYPE  OF  CREAM  SEPARATOR 149 

FARM  BUTTER-MAKING  APPARATUS 153 

BUTTER  PRINTER 155 

BUTTER  READY  FOR  MARKET 156 

WOODEN  LADLE 157 

HOGGING  DOWN  CORN 172 

BUILDINGS  ON  A  DAIRY  FARM 174 

A  FEED  LOT  RACK  FOR  BOTH  GRAIN  AND  ROUGHAGE 176 

THE  SCALE  is  A  NECESSARY  ADJUNCT  TO  PROFITABLE  FEEDING 178 


PART  I 

LIVESTOCK  FARMING 

(Animal  Husbandry) 


13 


CHAPTER   1 

ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  KEEPING  LIVESTOCK 

Without  the  aid  of  domestic  animals  as  beasts  of  burden,  man  would 
have  a  sorry  existence.  The  horse,  ass  and  camel  have  been  of  great  service 
in  past  ages  in  aiding  man  to  conquer  new  regions,  and  by  their  aid  he  has 
been  enabled  to  very  materially  increase  his  productive  power. 

Animals  have  also  been  a  great  aid  to  man  as  a  source  of  food  and 
clothing.  Those  countries  that  depend  upon  animals  and  animal  products 
the  most  are,  as  a  rule,  the  most  productive  and  highly  civilized.  In 
North  America  animal  products,  such  as  meat,  milk,  butter,  cheese,  lard, 
eggs,  etc.,  constitute  fully  one-half  of  the  value  of  the  products  of  human 
consumption. 

A  large  part  of  the  vegetation  on  the  earth  is  unsuited  for  human 
consumption.  Of  this,  such  by-products  as  straw  and  stover  are  converted 
into  milk,  butter,  cheese,  meat  and  animal  fats.  It  is  estimated  that  80 
per  cent  of  the  corn  produced  in  the  United  States  is  consumed  by  livestock 
in  the  county  where  produced.  This  conversion  of  crude  farm  products 
adds  greatly  to  the  quality  of  man's  diet. 

The  essential  characteristics  of  domesticated  animals  are:  (1)  their 
ability  to  convert  food  into  energy  and  animal  products  for  human  use, 
(2)  the  readiness  with  which  they  become  subject  to  the  will  of  man, 
and  (3)  their  prolificacy  or  ability  to  breed  abundantly. 

Value  and  Importance  of  Livestock. — The  United  States  and  Canada 
with  28,000,000  horses,  63,000,000  cattle,  51,000,000  sheep  and  more  than 
62,000,000  swine,  is  pre-eminently  a  livestock  country.  South  America 
leads  in  the  production  of  sheep  with  115,000,000  and  ranks  third  in  cattle 
with  48,000,000.  It  falls  to  India  to  lead  in  cattle  production,  which, 
including  the  water  buffalo,  numbers  125,000,000  head.  The  United  States, 
however,  far  outranks  all  other  countries  in  its  numbers  of  horses,  mules 
and  swine.  It  is  second  in  production  of  cattle  and  sheep. 

During  the  past  half  century,  the  livestock  in  the  United  States  has 
increased  about  three  times  in  numbers  and  about  six  times  in  value. 
While  numbers  have  not  quite  kept  pace  with  increase  in  population,  the 
value  per  capita  has  steadily  increased.  This  increase  in  value  has  been 
due  chiefly  to  two  factors:  (1)  the  improvement  in  livestock,  and  (2)  the 
increased  value  per  unit  of  weight  of  animals  and  animal  products.  In 
1850  the  average  fleece  of  a  sheep  weighed  2.4  pounds;  in  1900  it  had 
increased  to  6.9  pounds.  During  the  fifty  years  sheep  nearly  doubled  in 
number,  while  the  yield  of  wool  increased  five  times.  This  increase  was 
.due  chiefly  to  breeding  rather  than  feeding.  If  statistics  were  available, 

15 


16 


§tfp£ESSFUL    FARMING 


we  woakl  doubtless  fin- l.'i'hat^he  increase  per  cow  in  milk,  and  particularly 
in  butter-fat,  would  not  be  less  striking. 

Thirty-five  years  ago,  the  usual  work-team  in  the  corn  belt  consisted 
of  two  1000-pound  horses.  Today,  the  prevailing  team  is  three  1500-pound 
horses.  This  increase  in  the  size  of  the  team  has  been  an  important  factor 
in  increasing  the  man  unit  of  production  on  the  farm,  and  has  undoubtedly 
been  one  of  the  factors  instrumental  in  the  increase  in  land  values  in  that 
region.  The  following  table  gives  the  numbers,  value  per  head  and  total 
value  of  the  principal  classes  of  livestock  in  the  United  States  for  1880  and 
1915,  as  reported  by  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture: 

NUMBERS  AND  VALUE  OF  LIVESTOCK  ON  FARMS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
IN  1915  AS  COMPARED  WITH  1880. 


Class  of 

Animals, 

1880. 

1915. 

Number. 

Value 
per  Head. 

Farm  Value. 

Number. 

Value 
per  Head. 

Farm  Value. 

Horses  

11,202,000 
1,730,000 
12,027,000 
21,231,000 
40,766,000 
34,034,000 

$54.75 
61.26 
23.37 
16.10 
2.21 
4.28 

$613,297,000 
105,948,000 
279,889,000 
341,761,000 
90,231,000 
145,782,000 

21,195,000 
4,479,000 
21,262,000 
37,067,000 
49,956,000 
64,618,000 

$103.33 
112.36 
55.33 
33.38 
4.50 
9.87 

$2,190,102,000 
503,271,000 
1,176,338,000 
1,237,376,000 
224,687,000 
637,479,000 

Mules 

Cows  

Other  cattle.  .  .  . 
Sheep  
Swine 

Total 

$1,576,908,000 

$5,969,253,000 

From  the  above  table  it  will  be  noted  that  the  total  value  of  livestock 
in  the  United  States  increased  from  a  little  more  than  $1,500,000,000  in 
1880  to  nearly  $6,000,000,000  in  1915.  During  that  period,  horses  and 
mules  doubled  in  number  and  quadrupled  in  value.  The  increase  in  num- 
bers of  cows  and  other  cattle  did  not  quite  double,  while  the  value  per  head 
of  the  former  considerably  more  than  doubled  and  the  latter  slightly  more 
than  doubled.  The  increase  in  numbers  of  sheep  and  swine  was  slightly 
less  marked,  but  in  both  of  these  classes  the  value  per  head  slightly  more 
than  doubled. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  LIVESTOCK 

Animals  Furnish  Food,  Labor  and  Clothing. — Even  when  not  profit- 
able to  rear  anmals  for  market,  the  cost  of  living  on  farms  may  be  greatly 
reduced  by  the  judicious  production  of  livestock  and  livestock  products 
for  the  home  food  supply.  The  difference  between  the  purchase  price  of 
animals  and  animal  products  and  the  price  which  the  producer  receives  has 
materially  increased  during  recent  years.  The  value  of  these  products  to 
the  farmer  for  his  own  consumption  is  equal,  whether  bought  or  produced 
on  the  farm.  Furthermore,  animals  and  animal  products  may  be  produced 
on  a  small  scale  on  most  farms  on  what  otherwise  would  be  wasted. 


KEEPING    LIVESTOCK 


17 


The  acres  of  land  cultivated  by  each  horse  depends  on  the  size  of  the 
horse,  character  of  farming,  the  type  of  soil  and  the  topography  of  the  land. 
In  England,  two  horses  are  generally  required  for  80  acres  of  light,  sandy 
soil  or  60  acres  of  heavy,  clay  soil.  In  the  United  States,  there  is  about 
one  horse  or  mule  of  working  age  to  each  30  acres  of  improved  land.  For- 
merly, many  oxen  were  kept  for  work,  but  these  have  been  largely  replaced 
by  the  horse  and  mule  because  of  their  more  rapid  movements  and  conse- 
quent greater  efficiency.  The  draft  of  the  ox  is  larger  in  proportion  to  his 
weight,  but  his  slowness  has  caused  his  displacement  with  the  increase  in 
the  value  of  human  labor. 

With  the  introduction  of  cotton  and  silk,  the  value  of  animal  products 
as  sources  of  clothing  decreased  relatively.  The  value  of  leather,  wool  and 


UTILIZING  WOODLAND  FOR  PASTURED 

hair  is  very  large,  however,  and  plays  an  important  part  in  the  clothing 
of  the  human  race. 

Animals  Make  Use  of  Land  Otherwise  Unproductive. — According  to 
the  last  census,  only  about  one-half  of  the  farm  area  in  the  United  States 
was  improved  land,  and  only  about  two-thirds  of  the  improved  land  was  in 
farm  crops,  including  meadows.  The  other  one-third,  together  with 
considerable  of  the  unimproved  portion,  is  utilized  as  pasture  for  animals. 
On  most  farms  there  are  areas  more  or  less  extensive  which  may  be  steep, 
stony,  partly  wooded,  undrained  or  otherwise  unprofitable  for  cultivated 
crops,  that  may  be  utilized  for  grazing  purposes. 

Animals  Utilize  Crops  that  would  be  Wholly  or  Partly  Wasted.— The 
straw  of  the  cereals,  the  stover  of  corn,  have  little  value  on  most  farms 
except  as  roughage  and  bedding  for  livestock.  Low  grades  of  hay,  damaged 

1  Courtesy  of  E.  K.  Hibshmann,  Pennsylvania  State  College. 


18 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


by  rains  or  delay  in  harvesting,  often  are  unsalable,  but  may  be  utilized 
for  feed  for  stock.  In  the  same  way  corn  and  small  grains  are  sometimes 
damaged  by  exposure  to  the  weather  or  early  frosts,  and  may  have  con- 
siderable feeding  value,  but  no  value  on  the  market. 

Animals  Transform  Coarse,  Bulky  Products  into  Concentrated  Form. — 
Animals  convert  coarse,  bulky,  raw  materials  into  a  more  concentrated 
and  valuable  finished  product,  and  one  that  may  be  marketed  with  less 
cost  and  to  much  better  advantage.  It  requires  about  10  pounds  of  dry 
matter  to  produce  1  pound  of  beef  or  30  pounds  of  dry  matter  to  produce 
1  pound  of  butter.  The  farmer  in  transforming  such  coarse  products  to 
a  more  refined  one  not  only  reaps  the  profit  in  the  process  of  manufacture, 
but  the  pound  of  butter  may  be  sent  to  a  market  a  thousand  miles  away, 
when  the  material  from  which  it  was  made  could  not  be  profitably  sent  to 
a  market  ten  miles  distant.  One  cent  a  pound  for  transporting  butter 


LIVESTOCK  AND  THE  SILO  INCREASE  THE  PROFITS  ON 
HIGH-PRICED  LAND.1 

would  be  but  a  small  percentage  of  its  value,  but  one  cent  a  pound  for 
transporting  hay  would  be  prohibitive. 

Animals  Return  Fertility  to  the  Soil. — In  the  manufacture  of  these 
finer  products  on  the  farm,  animals  leave  much  of  the  fertilizing  material 
to  be  returned  to  the  soil.  The  manure  of  farm  animals  is  unquestionably 
the  most  valuable  bi-productof  American  farms.  In  considering  livestock 
farming  from  this  standpoint,  it  is  only  necessary  to  determine  whether 
it  has  been  successful  in  maintaining  soil  fertility.  A  study  of  the  crop- 
producing  capacity  of  the  soil  in  different  regions  shows  conclusively 
that  crop  yields  are  largest  where  large  numbers  of  livestock  are  main- 
tained. 

Livestock  Facilitate  Good  Crop  Rotations. — A  good  crop  rotation 
should  include  inter-tilled  crops,  small  grains  and  grasses  and  clovers. 


1  Courtesy  of  Webb  Publishing  Company,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 
Rotations, "  by  Parker. 


From  "Field  Management  and  Crop 


KEEPINGLIVESTOCK  19 

Livestock  make  possible  the  production  and  profitable  utilization  of  grasses 
and  clovers.  When  these  are  fed  to  livestock  and  the  manure  is  returned 
to  the  land,  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  increased.  Goodsods,  plenty  of  manure 
and  animals  to  utilize  by-products  extend  the  range  of  crops  that  may  be 
grown  on  the  farm  and  thus  provide  for  better  crop  rotations. 

Capital  More  Fully  Used. — The  wheat  farmer  in  the  Northwest  is 
very  busy  from  spring  until  fall,  but  is  generally  idle  from  September  to 
March.  When  livestock  is  kept,  labor  of  men  and  teams  is  more  fully 
employed  and  equipment  more  fully  utilized. 

Livestock  Call  for  Higher  Skill. — Animal  husbandry,  including  keep- 
ing of  dairy  cattle,  poultry,  etc.,  maybe  made  to  require  higher  skill  than 
ordinary  extensive  production  of  crops.  It  calls  for  the  same  requirements 
so  far  as  the  care  of  the  soil  and  the  production  of  crops  are  concerned,  and 
there  is  added  to  this  the  skill  of  the  breeder  and  the  feeder.  The  products 
of  skilled  workmen  command  a  higher  price  than  do  those  of  the  unskilled 
workmen.  In  this  country  those  communities  that  have  given  most  atten- 
tion to  livestock  are  in  general  the  most  prosperous.  There  are,  of  course, 
some  exceptions  to  this. 

More  Land  may  be  Farmed  with  the  Same  Labor. — This  is  true 
only  in  the  extensive  grazing  of  livestock,  as  exemplified  in  the  ranches  of 
the  West,  notably  in  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  cattle  and  sheep.  When 
these  are  brought  to  the  farm  of  the  feeder,  they  really  reverse  the  process 
and  call  for  increased  labor  and  skill  on  the  unit  of  area. 

DISADVANTAGES   OF  LIVESTOCK 

Animals  Require  Larger  Capital — This  is  especially  true  when  kept 
in  connection  with  the  production  of  hay  and  grain.  On  a  160-acre  farm 
40  head  of  cattle  worth  $1500,  40  sheep  worth  $300  and  20  hogs  worth 
$300  may  be  kept,  and  the  farm  made  to  raise  all  the  necessary  food  for 
them.  This  would  increase  the  capital  of  the  farm  by  $2100.  It  would 
also  call  for  additional  capital  in  buildings,  and  this  would  all  be  an  increase 
over  what  would  be  required  if  the  same  land  were  used  only  for  cash  crops. 
On  a  farm  that  supplies  all  the  feed  for  livestock,  $10  per  acre  invested  in 
livestock  may  be  considered  as  moderate.  If  only  the  coarse  feed  is  grown 
it  may  carry  stock  to  the  value  of  $25  to  $30  per  acre.  This  is  exemplified 
in  many  dairy  farms  close  to  market,  and  sometimes  on  farms  where  stock 
are  fattened  for  market. 

Capital  of  Perishable  Nature. — Animal  diseases,  such  as  tuberculosis 
or  foot  and  mouth  disease  in  cattle,  cholera  in  hogs,  and  internal  parasites 
in  sheep,  may  quickly  wipe  out  the  animals  on  any  particular  farm.  This 
entails  a  loss  not  only  of  the  product  for  a  single  year,  but  also  of  all  the 
capital  that  may  have  been  invested  in  feeds  and  labor  to  bring  the  stock 
to  that  stage  of  maturity  at  which  it  was  destroyed  by  disease. 

Formerly,  it  was  not  uncommon  in  the  corn  belt  to  find  farmers  keep- 
ing 100  or  more  head  of  hogs  in  a  single  herd,  but  it  is  now  deemed  best  to 


20  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

keep  them  in  herds  of  small  units,  not  more  than  20  or  30,  as  protection 
against  cholera.  More  recently,  of  course,  methods  of  control  have  been 
developed,  which,  if  properly  administered,  hold  the  disease  in  check. 

Products  Cannot  be  Indefinitely  Held. — The  holding  of  livestock  for 
a  considerable  time  after  reaching  the  proper  stage  of  fattening  for  the 
market  entails  considerable  loss.  It  may  sometimes  result  in  actual 
decrease  in  quality  with  little  or  no  increase  in  weight,  and  a  loss  of  both 
food  and  labor  for  maintenance.  In  this  respect  livestock  for  meat  is 
sharply  contrasted  with  wheat  and  some  other  cereals  that  may  be  held 
almost  indefinitely  with  very  little  deterioration.  It  is  true  that  the 
development  of  better  markets,  systems  of  cold  storage  and  methods  of 
preserving  meat  have  lessened  somewhat  this  .difficulty. 

Crop  Failures  may  Cause  Loss  on  Livestock. — A  low  production  for 
the  staple  crops  used  largely  for  livestock  food  results  in  a  marked  advance 
in  price.  This  frequently  causes  a  loss  to  the  farmer  on  his  livestock. 
This  is  especially  true  in  case  of  swine  that  depend  so  largely  on  concen- 
trates for  their  production.  A  decrease  of  one-quarter  in  the  yield  of  a 
staple  crop  for  the  whole  country  often  causes  an  increase  in  price  so  marked 
that  if  the  whole  crop  were  sold  it  would  bring  more  than  a  normal  crop 
or  an  extra  large  one.  Since,  however,  so  large  a  percentage  of  the  crop 
is  fed,  this  does  not  mean  much  to  the  farmer  unless  there  is  a  correspond- 
ing increase  in  price  of  meat  animals.  A  number  of  instances  may  be 
cited  whan  a  marked  advance  in  price  of  corn  without  a  corresponding 
advance  in  hogs  has  induced  farmers  to  sell  their  hogs  before  fully 
ready  for  market,  thus  causing  the  hog  market  to  decline  in  the  face  of 
advancing  prices  on  corn.  This  condition  once  under  way  will  often  con- 
tinue for  a  full  year  before  normal  prices  again  prevail. 

The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  keeping  livestock  have  been 
presented  without  prejudice,  and  it  must  be  apparent  that  the  advantages 
seem  to  outweigh  the  disadvantages,  especially  from  the  standpoint  of 
permanent  systems  of  agriculture.  It  is,  of  course,  recognized  that  with 
increasing  population  there  should  be  a  tendency  for  people  to  depend 
more  and  more  upon  the  direct  products  of  the  soil  in  the  form  of  cereals, 
vegetables  and  fruits  rather  than  to  depend  so  largely  upon  animal  prod- 
ucts; and  doubtless  the  increase  in  land  values  and  high  prices  of  animal 
products  will  gradually  tend  in  this  direction. 


CHAPTER   2 

BREEDING,  CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

BY  W.  H.  TOMHAVE 
Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry,  The  Pennsylvania  State  College 

BREEDING  OF  LIVESTOCK 

History  of  Animal  Breeding. — The  first  systematic  work  in  animal 
breeding  was  done  among  the  Arabians.  This  is  indicated  by  the  character 
of  the  Arabian  horses  that  were  developed  during  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries.  Following  the  Arabians,  the  French  did  the  next  con- 
structive breeding  of  animals,  which  was  at  that  time  encouraged  by  the 
French  Government  in  the  developing  of  their  breeds  of  horses.  The  most 
important  animal  breeding  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  American  farmer 
of  today  was  done  by  the  people  of  the  British  Isles  during  the  last  half  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  and  throughout  the  entire  nineteenth  century. 
Robert  Bakewell  is  known  as  the  foremost  early  breeder  of  livestock, 
having  begun  his  work  about  1764  and  continued  it  until  the  time  of  his 
death.  He  was  followed  by  noted  men  such  as  Collings  Brothers,  Booth 
and  Bates,  all  of  whom  were  early  breeders  of  Shorthorn  cattle.  Amos 
Cruickshank  was  probably  the  most  noted  breeder  of  recent  years,  and  was 
recognized  as  the  peer  among  the  Shorthorn  breeders  of  Scotland  during 
the  nineteenth  century.  Great  interest  was  then  shown  in  developing 
the  various  classes  of  livestock  and  this  has  resulted  in  giving  us  our  present 
breeds  of  pure-bred  livestock. 

The  foundation  work  in  animal  breeding  in  America  was  done  largely 
during  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  foundation  animals 
used  by  most  of  the  noted  breeders  were  imported  into  the  United  States 
and  Canada  from  Europe.  Large  importations  of  well-bred  animals  were 
made  into  the  United  States  from  1880  up  to  1900.  Since  that  time  only 
limited  importations  have  been  made  into  this  country,  as  most  of  the 
noted  animals  in  America  at  the  present  time  are  the  product  of  American 
breeders.  While  a  great  deal  of  work  has  been  done  in  both  Europe  and 
America,  less  than  two  per  cent  of  all  the  farm  animals  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  at  the  present  time  are  of  pure  breeding.  This  seems  to  indi- 
cate that  there  is  a  fertile  field  for  livestock  breeding  for  the  American 
farmer. 

Lines  of  Breeding. — There  are  three  distinct  lines  of  breeding  that  can 
be  followed  by  the  American  farmer.  These  may  be  enumerated  as 
follows :  breeding  of  pure-breds,  grading  and  cross-breeding.  The  breeding 

21 


22 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


of  pure-bred  animals  is  by  far  the  most  important  system  of  breeding,  and 
the  one  that  should  be  followed  to  a  greater  extent  by  farmers  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  The  greatest  improvement  can  be  made  in  a  herd 
of  livestock  by  this  system  of  breeding.  The  use  of  both  pure-bred  sire 
and  dam  enables  the  farmer  to  follow  a  more  rigid  system  of  selection  and 
cull  out  undesirable  individuals,  which  is  not  always  possible  in  grading 
and  cross-breeding.  There  is  one  weakness,  however,  that  every  breeder 
of  pure-bred  animals  is  apt  to  encounter,  and  that  is  a  certain  degree  of 
hesitation  about  elim- 
inating an  animal 
from  his  herd  that 
may  be  pure-bred  and 
yet  not  up  to  the 
standard  which  he 
has  set  for  building 
up  his  herd. 

Grading  is  an- 
other means  of  mak- 
ing a  marked  improve- 
ment on  the  average 
farm  herd.  By  grad- 
ing is  meant  the  mat- 
ing of  a  common  or 
relatively  inferior 
animal  with  one  that 
is  more  highly  im- 
proved, usually  a  pure- 
bred. This  pure-bred 
may  be  either  the  sire 
or  dam,  but  it  is  usually  the  sire,  as  the  sire  can  be  used  upon  a  number 
of  females  in  the  herd  and  thus  exercise  greater  influence  in  making  the 
improvement.  If  the  pure-bred  dam  and  a  grade  sire  are  used,  very 
little  improvement  is  made;  besides,  such  improvement  is  restricted  to 
one  mating.  If  a  pure-bred  sire  is  used  for  five  generations,  it  will  mean 
that  at  the  end  of  that  time  the  herd  is  practically  pure-bred,  but  can 
never  be  registered.  Rigid  selection  and  the  use  of  a  pure-bred  sire 
should  always  be  continued. 

By  cross-breeding  is  meant  the  mating  of  two  pure-bred  animals  of 
different  breeds.  Nothing  is  to  be  gained  by  such  method  of  breeding,  as 
it  destroys  the  pure  lines  that  may  have  been  established  and  also  has  a 
tendency  to  cause  a  greater  variation.  Cross-breeding  is  sometimes 
profitably  carried  on  in  producing  market  animals,  but  it  should  never  be 
carried  beyond  the  first  generation.  Cross-bred  animals  should  never  be 


Two  PURE-BRED  BULLS.    POLLED  ANGUS  ON  THE  LEFT, 
SHORTHORN  ON  THE  RIGHT.* 

Sires  of  this  character  should  head  the  herd  of  all  well- 
regulated  stock  farms. 


Courtesy  of  Dept.  of  Animal  Husbandry,  Pennsylvania  State  College. 


BREEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


23 


retained  as  breeders  in  the  herd,  as  this  has  a  tendency  to  cause  sterility 
in  the  breeding  animals,  besides  retarding  progress  in  building  up  the  herd. 
Selection  of  a  Breed. — The  selection  of  the  breed  of  animals  must  be 
determined  by  the  farmer  or  livestock  grower,  as  there  is  no  such  thing  as 
the  "best  breed."  All  breeds  of  livestock  have  been  developed  for  a 
definite  purpose  and  among  all  breeds  are  found  desirable  and  undesirable 
individuals.  In  deciding  upon  a  breed,  the  farmer  should  secure  all  data 
available  about  the  breeds  in  which  he  is  interested  and  adopt  the  one  that 


PUKE-BRED  SHORTHORN  BULL.* 

will  best  suit  his  conditions.  It  is  highly  important  that  he  select  good 
individuals  of  the  breed  adopted  and  that  he  continue  with  that  breed 
indefinitely.  To  change  breeds  at  the  end  of  one  or  two  years  is  not  con- 
ducive to  improvement,  and  means  a  loss  of  time.  It  is  important  to  select 
representative  animals  that  possess  pronounced  characteristics  of  the  breed, 
and  if  possible  to  secure  animals  with  a  known  ancestry.  In  the  selecting 
of  a  brood  sow  as  an  illustration,  such  sow  should  come  from  a  prolific1 

1  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


24  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

strain.  The  same  thing  is  true  in  the  selection  of  a  herd  boar  or  any  other 
animal  that  is  to  be  used  for  breeding.  It  is  a  wise  precaution  to  visit  the 
herd  from  which  the  animals  are  to  be  selected,  in  order  to  study  the  prepo- 
tency of  the  sire  that  is  at  its  head.  It  is  also  very  important  to  avoid  the 
introduction  of  barrenness  or  sterility  in  the  herd.  The  sires  selected  should 
be  strong,  vigorous  and  in  thrifty  condition.  Since  the  sire  will  be  used  on 
a  number  of  animals,  it  is  important  that  he  be  given  the  greatest  considera- 
tion, both  as  to  individuality  and  pedigree. 

Pedigree. — The  mere  fact  that  an  animal  is  pure-bred  and  has  a 
pedigree  is  not  an  indication  of  its  being  a  desirable  animal.  The  pedi- 
gree is  not  a  guaranty  of  excellence  in  the  animal.  There  are  many  poor 
pure-bred  individuals  as  well  as  desirable  individuals.  A  combination 
of  good  individuality,  together  with  a  pedigree  tracing  back  to  known 
ancestry,  will  usually  result  in  the  securing  of  desirable  animals. 

Gestation  Period. — The  farmer  or  livestock  breeder  must  keep  a 
record  of  the  breeding  dates  of  his  animals.  This  should  be  done  so  that 
he  may  know  at  what  time  they  are  to  produce  their  young.  The  gesta- 
tion period  varies  with  the  various  classes  of  animals.  For  cows,  it  is 
about  9  months,  or  approximately  280  days;  for  mares,  11  months,  or 
approximately  340  days;  for  ewes,  5  months,  or  about  150  days;  for  sows, 
4  months,  or  about  112  days.  The  gestation  period  for  all  animals  as 
stated  is  only  approximate,  and  has  been  known  to  vary  a  number  of 
days  from  this  period.  It  is  well,  however,  to  watch  the  animals  closely 
at  the  end  of  the  number  of  days  given  for  each  class  of  livestock. 

CARE   OF  LIVESTOCK 

The  breeding,  feeding  and  management  of  livestock  must  be  combined 
for  the  greatest  success.  Each  class  of  livestock  must  be  given  special 
care  and  attention,  and  a  system  worked  out  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
farm.  The  feeding  of  the  young  animals,  for  instance,  should  not  begin 
at  the  time  of  birth,  as  is  so  often  the  case,  but  should  be  properly  carried 
on  during  the  gestation  period.  The  young  life  begins  at  the  time  of  breed- 
ing and  for  the  greatest  development  must  be  properly  nourished  throughout 
the  gestation  period.  A  well-bred  animal  does  not  guarantee  the  pro- 
duction of  a  desirable  individual  unless  the  animal  is  properly  fed,  so  that 
the  growing  fcetus  may  be  properly  nourished.  Young  growing  animals 
must  have  an  abundance  of  food  that  is  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter 
for  the  development  of  muscle  and  bone  rather  than  fattening  material. 
This,  combined  with  proper  exercise  and  plenty  of  fresh  air  and  sunlight, 
will  result  in  a  properly  developed  individual. 

Preparation  of  Feeds — In  feeding  livestock,  it  is  necessary  to  econo- 
mize on  the  use  of  grains;  yet  at  the  same  time,  it  is  not  a  wise  plan  to  carry 
this  economy  to  an  extreme.  The  method  of  preparing  the  feed  for  stock 
will  vary  with  the  different  classes  of  livestock  and  the  different  kinds  of 
feeds  used.  Cooking  feed  for  hogs  was  at  one  time  considered  a  desirable 


BREEDING    FARM    ANIMALS  25 

practice,  but  hog-feeding  experiments  conducted  in  Canada  and  the 
United  States  for  the  purpose  of  comparing  the  merits  of  cooked  and 
uncooked  grain  all  show  an  actual  loss  from  cooking.  There  was  a  saving 
of  labor  and  larger  gains  for  uncooked  feed. 

The  grinding  of  grain  for  farm  animals  will  depend  upon  the  kind  and 
price  of  grain  and  the  animals  to  which  it  is  to  be  fed.  Small  grains,  such 
as  wheat,  barley  and  rye,  should  always  be  crushed  or  ground  before  they 
are  fed.  The  kernels  of  these  grains  are  hard  and  some  of  it,  if  fed  whole, 
will  pass  through  the  system  of  an  animal  without  being  masticated  or 
digested.  There  is  a  saving  of  about  six  per  cent  in  feeding  value  of  corn 
when  fed  ground  or  cracked  instead  of  whole.  Generally  speaking,  when 
corn  is  worth  more  than  75  cents  per  bushel,  it  will  pay  to  grind  it  or  have 
it  cracked  for  all  classes  of  farm  animals,  except  when  fed  to  cattle  where 
hogs  follow  in  the  feed  lot. 

Feeding  Condimental  Stock  Feeds. — The  feeding  of  proprietary  stock 
foods  or  condition  powders  should  be  avoided.  These  preparations  usually 
cost  from  ten  to  thirty  cents  per  pound  and  contain  nothing  that  cannot 
be  secured  by  using  standard  feeds.  They  are  usually  made  up  of  ground 
screenings,  weed  seeds,  bark  of  trees,  a  little  oil  meal,  and  such  materials 
as  charcoal,  copperas,  epsom  salts,  etc.  The  feeding  of  such  "foods"  will 
do  more  harm  than  good.  When  animals  are  out  of  condition,  the  addition 
of  a  little  oil  meal  to  the  regular  feed  will  usually  give  fully  as  good  results. 
Salt,  usually  found  in  these  preparations,  should  always  be  supplied  to 
farm  animals  in  liberal  amounts. 

Care  of  the  Breeding  Herd. — The  breeding  herd  must  be  properly 
cared  for  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  secured.  It  is  not  necessary  to  keep 
the  animals  fat,  but  they  should  be  kept  in  a  thrifty  condition,  so  that  they 
can  supply  the  nutrients  necessary  to  properly  develop  their  young  during 
the  gestation  period.  Breeding  animals  should  have  exercise,  plenty  of 
nutritious  feed  and  good  water.  They  should  be  fed  largely  on  farm- 
grown  feeds  where  the  right  kind  can  be  produced  cheaply. 

Care  of  Work  Animals. — The  term  work  animals  applies  usually  to 
horses  and  mules.  These  animals  are  the  principal  beasts  of  burden  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  The  best  results  can  be  secured  only  through 
proper  feeding  and  care.  Work  horses  and  mules  should  receive  the  largest 
portion  of  grain  ration  during  the  morning  and  noon  meals,  and  be  allowed 
the  bulk  of  their  roughage  at  the  evening  meal.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  the  horse  and  mule  do  not  possess  large  stomachs,  and  thus  cannot 
carry  a  large  amount  of  bulky  feed  without  seriously  interfering  with  their 
ability  to  work.  The  amount  of  grain  and  roughage  to  supply  depends 
upon  the  work  that  is  being  done.  For  a  horse  doing  heavy  work,  about 
1J4  to  1^/2  pounds  of  grain  to  100  pounds  liveweight  daily  should  be  allowed, 
and  approximately  the  same  amount  of  roughage.  This  amount  should 
be  reduced  to  about  one-half  the  regular  allowance  when  the  horses  stand 
idle  over  Sunday  or  any  other  day.  Over  90  per  cent  of  all  cases  of  azoturia 


26  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

in  horses  taking  place  on  Monday  morning  result  directly  from  carelessness 
in  over-feeding.  Work  horses  should  not  be  watered  when  overheated, 
but  a  horse  accustomed  to  drinking  water  from  which  the  chill  has  been 
removed  will  usually  suffer  no  injury  if  allowed  to  rest  a  short  time  before 
watering.  The  usual  and  common  practice  is  to  allow  the  horse  all  the 
water  he  cares  to  drink  before  feeding  in  preference  to  heavy  watering 
after  feeding. 

Assist  Animals  at  Time  of  Giving  Birth  to  Their  Young. — There  is 
probably  no  time  when  breeding  animals  require  assistance  and  watching 
as  much  as  at  the  time  of  giving  birth  to  their  young.  It  is  well  to  watch 
the  animals  at  this  time  and  provide  them  with  comfortable  quarters  and 
the  proper  feed.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  allow  only  a  limited  ration  at 
this  time.  The  system  will  be  in  a  much  better  condition  to  give  birth  to 
the  young  than  where  full  allowance  of  feed  is  supplied.  If  the  animal 
has  difficulty  in  giving  birth  to  its  young,  assistance  should  be  given,  which 
in  case  of  horses  and  cattle,  can  best  be  secured  by  calling  in  a  competent 
veterinarian. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  LIVESTOCK 

The  management  of  livestock  increases  in  importance  with  the  rise 
in  the  value  of  livestock  and  the  increase  in  the  cost  of  feeds,  labor  and, 
building  materials.  The  three  most  important  factors  to  be  kept  in  mind 
in  the  economical  production  of  livestock  is  to  keep  down  the  cost  of  shelter, 
labor  and  feed.  The  buildings  or  housing  facilities  for  all  classes  of  farm 
animals  should  be  adequate,  yet  not  expensive.  If  they  can  be  made  con- 
venient and  comfortable,  that  is  all  that  is  necessary.  Too  many  farmers 
insist  on  making  their  buildings  too  warm.  This  is  seen  in  many  cases 
where  large  basement  barns  are  built  that  become  extremely  hot  during 
the  winter.  Such  barns  favor  the  development  of  livestock  diseases,  rather 
than  keeping  the  animals  in  a  healthy  condition.  Farm  animals  will 
thrive  much  better  and  be  healthier  if  they  are  put  in  open  sheds  that  offer 
protection  from  cold  winds,  rain  and  sleet.  This  is  especially  true  in  case 
of  cattle  and  sheep.  Hogs  and  horses  can  also  be  kept  in  open  sheds  the 
same  as  cattle  and  sheep  if  they  are  given  plenty  of  bedding  and  are  kept 
dry.  The  sleeping  quarters  for  all  farm  animals  should  be  kept  well  bedded. 

Open  Sheds. — A  number  of  experiments  have  been  conducted  to  com- 
pare open  sheds  and  warm  barns  for  cattle  and  sheep.  In  nearly  every 
case  it  has  been  found  that  beef  cattle  fed  in  open  sheds  made  greater  daily 
gains,  consumed  less  feed  per  pound  of  gain,  and  were  in  healthier  and 
thriftier  condition  than  those  kept  in  warm  barns.  The  housing  of  cattle 
and  sheep  in  open  sheds  is  a  saving  to  the  farmer,  as  it  does  not  require  as 
much  capital  to  construct  a  shed  as  it  does  to  construct  the  usual  expensive 
barn.  It  is^also  a  saving  of  labor,  as  the  cattle  are  not  tied  like  they  are 
in  the  barn.  Open  sheds  should  be  built  to  face  the  south  so  the  interior 
will  not  be  exposed  to  the  severe  north  winds.  They  should  be  built  high 
enough  so  that  the  manure  can  be  taken  out  by  driving  into  the  shed  with 


BREEDING    FARM    ANIMALS 


27 


the  wagon  or  manure  spreader.     Feed  carriers  should  also  be  provided  in 
order  to  save  carrying  a  large  amount  of  feed. 

Arrangement  of  Labor. — The  amount  of  labor  necessary  to  care  for 
the  livestock  should  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  This  can  be  done  by 
arranging  convenient  quarters  in  which  to  feed  the  livestock.  The  farmer's 
and  livestock  producer's  business  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  bulk  of 
the  labor  connected  with  the  livestock  comes  during  the  winter.  If  this 
is  done  it  means  that  the  labor  employed  upon  the  farm  can  be  distributed 
more  equally  throughout  the  entire  year.  It  can  be  used  to  work  the  fields 
during  the  summer  and  care  for  the  livestock  during  the  winter.  Very 


OPEN  SHEDS  FOR  STEER  FEEDING.1 

Shelter  of  this  character  is  less  expensive  than  warm  barns,  and  wherever  the  climate  is 
not  too  severe  steers  make  better  gains  for  feed  consumed  than  when  sheltered 
in  warm  barns. 

little  labor  is  required  during  the  summer  if  plenty  of  pasture  of  the  proper 
kind  is  provided.  Such  distribution  of  labor  also  makes  it  possible  to  secure 
more  competent  help  than  where  it  can  be  employed  only  during  a  portion 
of  the  year. 

The  Kind  of  Farm  Animals. — The  class  of  farm  animals  to  keep  will 
depend  entirely  upon  the  location  and  equipment  of  the  farm.  On  farms 
where  a  large  amount  of  pasture  and  rough  feed  is  produced,  beef  cattle 
and  sheep  are  best  adapted.  This  is  also  true  of  farms  where  there  is  no 

»  Courtesy  of  Dept.  of  Animal  Husbandry,  Pennsylvania  State  College. 


28  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

adequate  means  of  transportation.  With  good  transportation  facilities  or 
near  cities  where  there  is  a  good  demand  for  dairy  products,  dairying  may 
be  advisable.  In  many  sections  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  where 
cream  only  is  sold  from  the  dairy,  hogs  make  an  admirable  addition  to  the 
dairy.  Hogs,  on  the  other  hand,  are  well  adapted  to  most  all  types  of 
farming,  and  provide  a  source  of  quick  returns  from  the  feeds  fed.  The 
number  of  farm  animals  to  keep  upon  a  farm  depends  entirely  upon  the 
size  of  the  farm  and  the  feeds  that  can  be  grown.  It  is  a  good  practice  to 
produce  as  much  as  possible  of  the  feeds  necessary  to  maintain  or  fatten 
the  livestock  produced  on  the  farm.  This  does  not  mean  that  feeds  should 
noib  be  purchased.  The  purchase  of  nitrogenous  supplements  to  feeds 
grown  on  the  farm  is  not  as  universally  practiced  as  it  should  be. 

Regularity  in  Feeding  and  Watering. — The  best  results  from  farm 
animals  cannot  be  secured  unless  the  feeding  and  watering  is  done  with 
system  and  regularity.  Plenty  of  clean  water  should  always  be  supplied. 
The  more  water  consumed  by  an  animal,  the  more  of  the  feeds  supplied 
will  it  consume,  thus  producing  heavier  gains  or  larger  amounts  of  milk. 
The  cost  of  the  feeds  supplied  is  a  factor  of  importance.  The  cost  of  the 
feed  bill  should  be  kept  as  low  as  possible.  This  can  be  done  only  by  the 
use  of  farm-grown  feeds.  In  many  cases  a  large  amount  of  roughage  or 
grain  is  grown  that  does  not  have  a  ready  sale,  possibly  on  account  of  being 
slightly  damaged  by  weathering  or  improper  curing.  Such  feeds  can  best 
be  used  upon  the  farm.  Not  only  does  it  provide  a  desirable  place  to  dis- 
pose of  them,  but  the  fertility  which  would  be  lost  if  the  feeds  are  sold  from 
the  farm  is  thus  saved.  Such  practice  makes  the  land  more  fertile  and 
more  productive  than  where  such  crops  as  hay,  stover  and  corn  are  sold 
from  the  farm. 

Observing  Individuals. — Every  owner  of  livestock  should  study  the 
individuals  in  the  herd  and  see  that  they  are  in  good  condition  of  health. 
It  frequently  happens  that  animals  are  not  doing  well,  and  upon  investi- 
gation it  is  found  to  be  due  to  internal  or  external  parasites.  Usually  an 
unthrifty  animal  is  infested  with  internal  parasites,  which,  if  noticed  in 
the  early  stages,  can  often  be  destroyed.  External  parasites,  such  as  lice, 
are  a  source  of  annoyance  and  should  be  destroyed.  In  the  case  of  sheep, 
it  is  an  excellent  practice  to  dip  all  of  the  flock  in  a  coal-tar  dip  at  least 
once  a  year.  This  is  usually  done  following  shearing  in  the  spring.  It  is 
also  well  to  provide  new  pasture  for  young  lambs  at  weaning  time,  as  at 
that  time  they  are  more  subject  to  stomach  worms  than  at  any  other  time. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  become  more  easily  the  prey  of  worms  on 
account  of  the  change  from  nursing  the  dam  to  depending  entirely  upon 
food  supplied  for  their  maintenance.  Hogs  should  frequently  be  sprayed 
or  dipped  with  a  coal-tar  dip  so  as  to  destroy  lice  that  are  often  found  on 
their  bodies.  Hogs  are  also  often  unthrifty  as  the  result  of  stomach  worms. 

Keep  up  Records. — It  is  highly  desirable  for  a  farmer  or  livestock 
breeder  who  is  breeding  pure-bred  animals  to  keep  his  records  up  to  date. 


BREEDING    FARM    ANIMALS  29 

It  frequently  happens  that  desirable  pure-bred  animals  are  grown  on  the 
farm,  but  their  registration  is  not  completed.  Such  practice  is  well  enough 
where  only  market  animals  are  being  produced.  There  may  come  a  time, 
however,  when  the  breeder  will  desire  to  sell  animals  as  breeders.  Buyers 
of  pure-bred  cattle  require  the  registration  to  be  complete  in  order  that 
they  may  sell  any  offspring  produced  from  such  animals  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. Registration  involves  only  a  small  amount  of  time  and  expense, 
but  is  a  practice  that  is  well  worth  while. 

Preparation  and  Shipping  of  Livestock. — All  livestock,  whether 
breeding  animals  or  market  animals,  should  be  in  the  very  best  of  con- 
dition when  shipped.  If  pure-bred  stock  is  shipped  by  express,  it  should 
be  properly  crated.  If  shipped  by  freight,  it  should  be  properly  tied 
and  bedded.  If  the  animals  arrive  in  good  condition,  the  purchaser  will 
gain  a  good  impression  of  them  upon  first  inspection.  If  they  arrive  in 
poor  condition  due  to  careless  preparation,  the  buyer  as  a  rule  will  not  be 
satisfied  and  probably  will  not  make  another  purchase.  In  selling  pure- 
bred livestock  by  mail,  it  is  always  a  wise  plan  not  to  praise  too  highly 
the  animals  that  are  offered  for  sale.  It  is  much  better  to  have  the  pur- 
chaser find  the  animals  that  are  shipped  him  better  than  he  expected. 
Such  practice  usually  makes  more  sales  and  is  a  good  means  of  advertising. 
If  a  customer  is  not  satisfied  with  the  animals  shipped,  the  breeder  should 
always  make  it  a  point  to  satisfy  his  customer  either  by  refunding  the 
purchase  price  and  the  expense  of  shipping  or  by  shipping  another  animal. 

Cattle,  hogs  or  sheep  when  shipped  to  market  should  be  started  in  as 
near  normal  condition  as  possible.  Some  farmers  salt  heavily  before  ship- 
ping in  order  to  get  the  proper  "fill"  on  the  market.  Cattle  salted  just 
before  they  are  shipped  will  arrive  on  the  market  in  poor  condition.  They 
will  be  feverish,  will  drink  very  little  water,  will  not  eat  much  hay  and  will 
also  be  apt  to  scour.  Cattle  in  such  a  condition  usually  sell  at  a  discount. 
The  car  in  which  the  livestock  is  to  be  loaded  should  be  well  bedded  and 
in  the  case  of  cattle,  the  racks  should  be  filled  with  hay  so  they  can  eat 
while  en  route.  Always  ship  the  livestock  so  as  to  reach  the  market  early 
in  the  week,  as  there  is  usually  more  active  buying  at  that  time  than  later 
in  the  week. 

REFERENCES 

"Manual  of  Farm  Animals."     Harper. 

"Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals."     Plumb. 

:<  Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry."     Plumb. 

"Productive  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals."     Woll. 

"Animal  Breeding."     Shaw. 

"Feeding  and  Management  of  Farm  Animals."     Shaw. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  350,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     "Dehorning  of  Cattle." 


CHAPTER   3 

FEEDS  AND  FEEDING 

BY  DR.  H.  S.  GRINDLEY  AND  SLEETER  BULL 
Professor  and  Associate  of  Animal  Nutrition,  University  of  Illinois 

Introduction. — A  knowledge  of  the  scientific  principles  of  stock 
feeding  is  important  to  the  stockman.  This  knowledge  is  not  absolutely 
essential,  as  many  have  achieved  success  in  feeding  as  a  result  of  years  of 
experience.  However,  "experience  is  a  dear  teacher"  and  if  one  combines 
a  study  of  the  scientific  principles  of  feeding  with  the  experience  gained  in 
the  barn  and  feed  lot,  he  will  learn  the  art  of  successful  feeding  more  quickly, 
more  thoroughly  and  with  less  expense  than  if  he  depends  upon  experience 
as  his  only  teacher. 

Chemical  Composition  of  Feeding-stuffs. — All  feeding-stuffs  are 
composed  of  a  great  number  of  different  compounds  which  are  grouped 
into  five  classes,  viz.,  water,  mineral  matter,  crude  protein,  carbohydrates 
and  fats.  These  classes  of  compounds  are  usually  spoken  of  as  "nutrients," 
because  they  are  used  for  the  nutrition  of  the  animal. 

Water  is  found  in  large  amounts  in  such  feeds  as  green  pasture,  silage, 
beets  and  milk,  while  such  feeds  as  hay,  bran,  corn,  middlings,  etc.,  contain 
from  10  to  20  per  cent  water.  A  knowledge  of  the  water  content  of  feeds 
is  important  for  two  reasons:  (1)  feeds  high  in  water  content  are  lower  in 
feeding  value,  pound  for  pound,  than  feeds  low  in  water;  (2)  feeds  contain- 
ing more  than  18  or  20  per  cent  water  usually  ferment  and  spoil  when 
stored  in  bulk. 

Mineral  Matter,  or  ash  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  that  part  of  the 
feed  which  remains  as  ash  when  the  feed  is  burned.  In  the  animal  body, 
mineral  matter  is  used  principally  for  the  repair  and  growth  of  bone.  It 
is  also  used  in  the  growth  and  repair  of  the  muscles  and  vital  organs.  It 
is  found  in  the  blood  and  other  body  fluids.  A  certain  amount  of  it  is 
absolutely  essential  to  proper  growth  and  development,  or  even  for  life 
itself. 

Most  of  the  roughages,  especially  the  legumes,  as  clover,  alfalfa  and 
soy  beans,  are  quite  high  in  mineral  matter.  Also  such  feeds  as  tankage, 
middlings,  cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal  and  bran  are  high  in  mineral 
matter.  The  cereal  grains,  especially  corn,  are  low  in  mineral  matter. 
Consequently,  in  feeding  horses,  cattle  and  sheep,  little  account  need  be 
taken  of  the  mineral  matter  of  the  ration,  except  to  provide  salt,  as  these 
animals  are  nearly  always  given  feeding-stuffs,  some  of  which  are  high  in 
mineral  matter.  However,  in  case  of  hogs,  the  ration  may  be  deficient  in 

30 


FEEDS    AND    FEEDING  31 

mineral  matter,  especially  if  considerable  corn  is  used  in  the  ration.  The 
hogs  should  have  access  to  a  mineral  mixture  consisting  of  charcoal,  air- 
slaked  lime,  salt,  wood-ashes  and  rock  phosphate  or  "  floats." 

Crude  Protein  includes  all  the  compounds  of  the  feed  which  contain 
the  element  nitrogen.  Familiar  forms  of  protein  are  egg  albumen  (the  white 
of  the  egg)  and  casein  (the  curd  of  milk).  Protein  is  found  in  all  living 
matter  and  is  absolutely  essential  to  life.  It  is  found  in  every  plant  cell, 
but  in  larger  amounts  in  the  seeds.  It  also  occurs  in  every  animal  cell  and 
makes  up  a  large  part  of  the  solid  matter  of  the  blood,  muscles  and  organs 
of  the  body.  Thus  the  crude  protein  of  the  ration  is  absolutely  essential 
to  the  animal  for  the  repair  and  growth  of  the  muscles,  bones,  organs,  etc. 
It  is  also  essential  for  a  pregnant  animal  for  the  formation  of  the  foetus 
and,  later,  for  milk  production.  If  there  is  any  surplus  of  protein  in  the 
ration  above  the  requirements  of  the  animal  for  the  purposes  just  mentioned, 
the  surplus  may  be  used  to  produce  energy  or  to  liberate  heat.  If  there  is 
still  a  surplus,  it  may  be  used  for  the  production  of  body  fat.  However, 
protein  is  not  an  economical  source  of  energy  or  body  fat,  as  it  usually 
is  the  most  expensive  nutrient  and  the  one  which  it  is  most  often  necessary 
to  buy.  Hence,  no  more  protein  should  be  fed  than  needed  by  the  animal 
for  repair,  growth  and  milk  production.  Tankage,  cottonseed  meal, 
linseed  meal,  gluten  feed,  distillers'  grains,  brewers'  grains,  bran,  middlings 
and  soy  beans  are  high  in  protein.  The  legume  hays  are  also  relatively 
high  in  protein.  Corn,  timothy  hay,  the  straws,  fodder,  stover  and  silage 
are  low  in  crude  protein. 

Carbohydrates  are  the  chief  constituents  of  all  plants.  However, 
they  are  not  found  to  any  large  extent  in  animals.  Familiar  forms  of  the 
carbohydrates  are  starch,  sugar  and  vegetable  fiber,  such  as  hemp,  paper 
and  cotton.  As  the  carbohydrates  contain  such  a  variety  of  compounds 
which  differ  considerably  in  nutritive  value,  they  are  often  divided  into  two 
sub-classes:  " nitrogen-free  extract"  and  " crude  fiber." 

Nitrogen-free  extract  includes  those  carbohydrates  which  are  high  in 
feeding  value,  as  starch  and  sugar.  In  the  animal  body  these  substances 
are  used  as  a  source  of  energy  to  do  work  or  for  heat  to  keep  the  body  warm. 
If  there  is  any  surplus,  it  may  be  used  for  the  production  of  energy  and  the 
formation  of  body  fat.  As  carbohydrates  are  considerably  cheaper  than 
protein,  it  is  more  economical  to  use  them  for  these  purposes  than  to  use 
protein.  Feeds  high  in  nitrogen-free  extract  are  corn,  wheat,  barley,  rye, 
rice  and  oats.  The  flour  by-products,  the  oil  meals,  the  straws  and  hays 
contain  medium  amounts:  while  the  pastures,  silage  and  packing  house 
by-products  are  low. 

Crude  fiber  includes  the  tough,  woody,  fibrous  portion  of  the  plant. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  not  very  digestible,  the  nutritive  value  of  crude 
fiber  is  less  than  that  of  the  other  nutrients.  In  the  animal  the  digested 
crude  fiber  is  used  as  a  source  of  energy  and  as  a  source  of  body  fat.  Feeds 
high  in  crude  fiber  are  the  hays,  straws,  fodders,  stovers  and  roughages  in 


32 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


general.     The  cereal  grains,  the  oil  meals  and  most  mill  feeds  are  low  in 
crude  fiber. 

The  Fats,  sometimes  called  "ether  extract,"  include  all  the  fats  and 
oils  found  in  the  feed.  Practically  all  plants  contain  some  fats,  although 
usually  in  only  small  amounts.  In  animals,  fats  occur  much  more  abun- 
dantly, occurring  in  nearly  every  organ  and  tissue.  Fat  animals  often 
contain  40  or  50  per  cent  of  fat.  The  fat  of  the  ration  is  used  in  the  animal 
as  a  source  of  energy  and  as  a  source  of  body  fat.  It  is  about  two  and  one- 
quarter  times  as  valuable  as  protein  and  carbohydrates  for  these  purposes. 
Tankage  and  the  oil  meals  contain  the  largest  amounts  of  fat  of  the  ordinary 
feeding-stuffs. 


small 
intestines 


.roofofmoutfr 
I     tongue 

•-pharynx 

^^^^ 

salivary'      esophagus 
ducts       omasum,  or 
manyplies' 

reticulum.  or  honeycomb 

abomasum,  or 
rennet  ( true  stomach) 


anus 
•;•  caecum. 


colon,  or  large/ 
"intestine* 


THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT  OF  A  Cow.1 


.Digestion  of  the  Nutrients. — Before  the  nutrients  can  be  of  any  use 
to  the  animal  they  must  be  digested  and  taken  up  by  the  blood.  Digestion 
is  the  process  of  separating  the  useful  constituents  of  the  feed  from  those 
that  are  useless,  and  changing  the  useful  constituents  to  such  form  that 
they  may  be  taken  up  by  the  blood.  These  processes  take  place  in  the 
mouth,  stomach  and  intestines.  Inasmuch  as  only  the  digestible  nutrients 
of  a  feed  are  of  value  to  an  animal,  the  amount  of  digestible  components 
of  the  feed  are  of  special  interest  to  the  stockman.  Table  I  shows  the  per- 
centages of  the  digestible  nutrients  in  the  ordinary  feeding-stuffs.  (See 
Part  IV.) 

The  Nutritive  Ratio. — Proteins  are  used  primarily  for  growth  and 
repair,  while  carbohydrates  and  fats  are  used  for  energy  and  fat  production. 
The  nutritive  ratio  expresses  the  value  of  a  feed  or  ration  as  a  flesh  pro- 

i  Courtesy  of  Iowa  State  College. 


FEEDS    AND    FEEDING  33 

ducer  or  as  an  energy  and  fat  producer,  i.  e.}  it  is  the  ratio  of  digestible 
crude  protein  to  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat  in  the  feed  or  ration. 
Inasmuch  as  fat  is  two  and  one-quarter  times  as  valuable  as  carbohydrates, 
the  amount  of  digestible  fat  is  multiplied  by  two  and  one-quarter  and  added 
to  the  amount  of  digestible  carbohydrates.  The  sum  is  then  divided  by 
the  amount  of  digestible  protein.  The  first  term  of  the  ratio  is  always 
"1,"  while  the  second  term  is  obtained  by  the  following  formula: 

digestible  carbohydrates   +  2^  X  digestible  fat   =  gec(md  tmn  of  ^  ^ 
digestible  protein 

The  nutritive  ratio  is  written  as  "1  :  6"  or  "1  :  14,"  or  whatever  it 
may  be.  It  is  read  as  "one  to  six,"  or  "one  to  fourteen,"  Thus  one  finds 
the  nutritive  ratio  of  corn  as  follows:  from  Table  I  it  is  found  that  100 
pounds  of  corn  contain  7.8  pounds  of  digestible  protein,  66.8  pounds  of 
digestible  carbohydrates  and  4.3  pounds  of  digestible  fat.  Then,  substi- 
tuting in  the  above  formula: 

66.8  +  2^  X  4.3  =  9  g 

7.o 

Therefore,  the  nutritive  ratio  of  corn  is  1  :  9.8.  The  nutritive  ratio 
of  a  ration  containing  two  or  more  feeds  may  be  calculated  in  a  similar 
manner. 

Ordinarily,  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1  :  6  or  less  is  called  a  narrow  ratio; 
i.  e.,  the  feeding-stuff  or  ration  contains  a  relatively  large  amount  of  pro- 
tein and  a  relatively  small  amount  of  carbohydrates  and  fat.  A  ratio  of 
1  :  7  to  1  :  9  is  called  a  medium  ratio;  i.  e.,  there  is  present  a  medium 
amount  of  protein  and  a  medium  amount  of  carbohydrates  and  fat.  A 
ratio  of  1  :  10  or  greater  is  called  a  wide  ratio;  i.  e.,  the  proportion  of  pro- 
tein to  carbohydrates  and  fats  is  relatively  small. 

The  Energy  Values  of  Feeding-stuffs. — One  of  the  functions  of  the 
ration  of  an  animal  is  to  act  as  a  source  of  energy  to  do  work  or  form  heat. 
Also  the  formation  of  body  fat  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  storage  of  energy, 
because  it  may  be  used  as  a  source  of  energy  to  do  work  or  for  heat  at  any 
time  when  the  ration  is  insufficient  for  these  purposes.  Hence,  in  addition 
to  a  knowledge  of  the  digestible  nutrients  in  feeds,  the  scientific  stock- 
feeder  should  have  a  knowledge  of  the  energy  values  of  feeds,  i.  e.,  the 
value  of  different  feeding-stuffs  for  doing  work,  storage  of  fat,  milk  pro- 
duction, etc.  Energy  values  of  feeding-stuffs  are  expressed  in  "therms." 
A  therm  is  the  amount  of  energy  in  the  form  of  heat  necessary  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  1000  pounds  of  water  4°  F.  The  energy  values  of  some  of 
the  common  feeding-stuffs  are  given  in  Part  IV,  Table  II. 

Feeding-stuffs. — In  general,  feeding-stuffs  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  concentrates  and  roughages,  according  to  the  amounts  of  digestible 
nutrients  and  their  energy  values. 


34 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


Concentrates  are  feeding-stuffs  which  contain  a  relatively  large 
amount  of  digestible  nutrients  and  energy  in  a  small  bulk.  They  usually 
are  highly  nutritious  in  nature.  Concentrates  usually  have  an  energy 
value  of  60  or  more  therms  per  100  pounds.  Concentrates  may  be  sub- 
divided into  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  concentrates. 

A  nitrogenous  concentrate  is  one  which  is  relatively  rich  in  protein. 
It  usually  contains  11  per  cent  or  more  of  digestible  protein.  Common 
examples  are  tankage,  cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal,  gluten  feed,  dried 
distillers'  grains,  dried  brewers'  grains,  soy  beans,  bran,  middlings  and 
shorts.  As  a  rule,  but  few  nitrogenous  concentrates  are  produced  on  the 


THE  RESPIRATION  CALORIMETER  IN  USE  FOR  AN  EXPERIMENT.1 


farm  and  therefore  they  must  be  purchased.  Nitrogenous  concentrates 
are  almost  essential  in  the  rations  of  all  growing  animals  in  order  to  furnish 
protein  and  mineral  matter  so  essential  to  the  proper  development  of 
muscle  and  bone.  Likewise  the  milk  cow  requires  nitrogenous  concentrates 
in  order  to  provide  the  large  amounts  of  protein  and  mineral  matter  which 
she  excretes  in  her  milk.  Fattening  animals  and  work  horses  often  need 
small  amounts  of  nitrogenous  concentrates,  especially  if  they  are  still 
growing. 

A  non-nitrogenous  concentrate  is  low  or  only  medium  in  protein  con- 
tent, but  is  usually  rich  in  carbohydrates.     It  generally  contains  less  than 

i  Ycar-Book,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1910. 


F  EEDSAND     FEEDING  35 

11  per  cent  of  digestible  protein.  Examples  are  corn,  barley,  oats,  wheat, 
rye,  molasses  and  dried-beet  pulp.  Ordinarily  the  farmer  raises  all  the 
non-nitrogenous  concentrates  necessary,  and  usually  it  will  not  pay  him 
to  buy  such  feeds  on  the  market.  All  classes  of  fattening  animals  require 
large  amounts  of  non-nitrogenous  concentrates  in  order  to  furnish  the 
carbohydrates  and  fats  which,  as  has  already  been  stated,  are  the  cheapest 
sources  of  body  fat.  Also  work  horses  must  have  large  amounts  of  non- 
nitrogenous  concentrates  in  order  to  furnish  energy  for  doing  their  work. 
Milch  cows  need  medium  amounts,  while  they  should  be  used  more  spar- 
ingly in  the  rations  of  growing  and  breeding  animals. 

Roughages  are  feeding-stuffs  which  contain  a  relatively  small 
amount  of  digestible  nutrients,  or  net  energy  in  a  large  bulk.  They  usually 
contain  less  than  40  therms  of  energy  per  100  pounds.  Roughages  contain 
a  large  amount  of  crude  fiber  which  lowers  their  feeding  value  considerably. 
Roughages,  like  concentrates,  may  be  sub-divided  into  nitrogenous  and 
non-nitrogenous. 

Nitrogenous  roughages  usually  contain  6  per  cent  or  more  of  digestible 
protein.  Examples  are  clover,  alfalfa,  cowpea,  soy-bean  hay  and  alfalfa 
meal.  In  general,  all  the  legume  hays  fall  under  this  sub-class.  Nitro- 
genous roughages  should  be  grown  on  nearly  every  farm,  not  only  for  their 
feeding  value  but  also  for  their  fertilizing  value  in  the  crop  rotations.  It 
will  rarely  pay  to  buy  nitrogenous  roughages  on  the  market,  as  they  can 
be  produced  more  cheaply  at  home.  The  nitrogenous  roughages  are  valu- 
able in  the  rations  of  nearly  all  classes  of  animals  except  hogs,  and  even 
they  make  valuable  use  of  some  of  them  at  times.  Fattening  animals, 
with  the  exception  of  hogs,  should  have  nitrogenous  roughage.  Unless 
they  do,  it  will  be  necessary  to  feed  large  amounts  of  nitrogenous  concen- 
trates, and  even  then  the  results  will  be  only  fair,  unless  corn  silage  is  used. 
Growing  animals  should  have  nitrogenous  roughage,  as  it  furnishes  much 
of  the  protein  and  mineral  matter  so  essential  to  their  proper  development. 
Even  pigs  may  make  use  of  some  alfalfa  or  clover  hay.  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  produce  milk  economically  unless  nitrogenous  roughages 
are  used.  Breeding  cattle  and  sheep  need  little  or  no  other  feed  than 
nitrogenous  roughages  in  winter.  Brood  sows  and  boars  will  eat  consider- 
able of  the  leaves.  Horses  may  have  nitrogenous  roughages  if  they  are 
clean,  well  cured  and  free  from  dust.  Often,  however,  they  are  too  dusty 
for  horses. 

Non-nitrogenous  roughages  usually  contain  less  then  6  per  cent  of 
digestible  protein.  Examples  are  timothy  hay,  corn  silage,  corn  stover, 
oat  straw,  wheat  straw,  barley  straw  and  rye  straw.  Silage  is  the  best 
form  in  which  to  get  all  the  feeding  value  of  the  corn  crop.  It  may  be  used 
to  advantage  in  the  rations  of  practically  all  classes  of  animals  except  hogs, 
if  it  is  properly  supplemented  with  other  feeds.  The  other  non-nitroge- 
nous roughages  have. little  value  except  in  the  rations  of  mature  breeding 
animals,  stackers  and  work  horses. 


36  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

The  Requirements  of  Farm  Animals. — Knowing  the  digestible  nutri- 
ents and  the  energy  in  the  different  feeding-stuffs  and  the  amounts  of 
nutrients  and  energy  required  by  farm  animals,  one  can  formulate 
approximately  a  proper  ration  for  different  farm  animals  under  different 
conditions. 

The  Balanced  Ration. — A  balanced  ration  is  a  ration  which  contains 
all  the  nutrients  in  such  proportions,  forms  and  amounts  as  will  nourish 
properly  and  without  excess  of  any  nutrient,  a  given  animal  for  one  day. 
Extended  study  of  the  amount  of  each  nutrient  required  by  the  different 
farm  animals  for  the  various  purposes  for  which  they  are  kept  has  led  to 
the  formation  of  so-called  "feeding  standards."  Theoretically,  feeding 
standards  may  be  looked  upon  as  formulas  which  tell  at  a  glance  the  amount 
of  each  nutrient  necessary  to  produce  a  given  result.  In  practice,  however, 
feeding  standards  cannot  be  regarded  as  such,  but  only  as  a  guide  to  be 
used  in  connection  with  one's  practical  knowledge  of  the  amounts,  propor- 
tions and  combination  of  feeds  which  are  used  in  stock  feeding.  Although 
there  are  a  number  of  valuable  feeding  standards,  the  limits  of  this  chapter 
will  permit  a  discussion  of  only  a  few. 

The  Wolff-Lehmann  Standards  show  the  requirements  of  farm  animals 
under  different  conditions,  expressed  in  pounds  of  total  dry  substance, 
digestible  crude  protein,  digestible  carbohydrates  and  digestible  fat  per 
1000  pounds  live  weight.  The  nutritive  ratio  required  by  the  animal  also 
is  given. 

The  calculation  of  a  ration  according  to  any  feeding  standard  consists 
essentially  of  three  steps:  (1)  Having  given  the  requirements  for  an 
animal  of  a  given  weight,  usually  1000  pounds,  the  requirements  of  the 
animal  under  consideration  are  determined.  (2)  A  "  trial  ration"  is 
assumed,  using  the  amounts  and  proportions  of  concentrates  and  rough- 
ages which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  feeder,  are  necessary.  (3)  The  trial 
ration  is  modified  by  adding  or  deducting  concentrates  or  roughages  of 
such  composition  as  to  furnish  approximately  the  required  amounts  of 
nutrients. 

Thus,  for  example,  one  calculates  a  ration  according  to  the  Wolff- 
Lehmann  standard  for  a  1200-pound  horse  at  light  work  as  follows: 
According  to  the  standard  (see  Part  IV,  Table  III)  the  requirements 
of  a  1000-pound  horse  at  light  work  are  as  follows:  dry  substance,  20 
pounds;  digestible  protein,  1.5  pounds;  digestible  carbohydrates,  9.5 
pounds;  and  digestible  fat,  0.4  pounds.  The  first  step  is  to  calculate  the 
requirements  of  a  1200-pound  horse,  which  are  found  to  be  as  follows: 
dry  substance,  24  pounds;  digestible  protein,  1.8  pounds;  digestible  car- 
bohydrates, 11.4  pounds;  and  digestible  fat,  0.5  pound.  The  second  step 
is  to  assume  a  trial  ration  which  will  meet  approximately  the  requirements 
as  determined  in  the  first  step.  From  the  amount  of  dry  substance  required 
and  from  practical  experience,  one  judges  that  a  ration  consisting  of  12 
pounds  of  oats  and  14  pounds  of  timothy  hay  will  about  answer  the  pur- 


FEEDS    AND    FEEDING 


37 


pose.     Calculating  the  dry  substance  and  digestible  nutrients  of  this  ration 
from  Table  I,  the  following  results  are  obtained: 


Dry 

Substance, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Protein, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Carbohydrates, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Fat, 
pounds. 

Oats,  12  pounds  
Hay,  14  pounds  

Total  ration  

10.8 

12.2 
23.0 

1.1 
0.4 

1.5 

5.9 

5.9 

0.5 
0.2 

11.8 

0.7 

Comparing  the  nutrients  of  the  trial  ration  with  the  requirements  of 
the  standard,  it  is  seen  that  the  trial  ration  is  a  little  below  the  standard 
in  dry  substance  and  protein,  and  a  little  above  it  in  carbohydrates  and  fat. 
Thus  the  third  step  is  to  modify  the  trial  ration  so  that  its  nutrients  con- 
form to  the  standard.  Consequently,  a  feed  which  is  high  in  protein  and 
low  in  carbohydrates  should  be  substituted  for  part  of  the  ation.  Inas- 
much as  it  is  not  desirable  to  lessen  the  bulk  of  the  ration  as  the  dry 
substance  is  already  a  little  low,  one  may  substitute  two  pounds  of  linseed 
meal  for  two  pounds  of  the  oats  of  the  ration.  The  ration  then  contains 
the  following  nutrients: 


Dry 

Substance, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Protein, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Carbohydrates, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Fat, 
pounds. 

Oats,  10  pounds  

9.0 

0.9 

4.9 

0.4 

Oil  meal,  2  pounds  

1.8 

0.6 

0.6 

0.1 

Timothy  hay,  14  pounds. 
Total  ration  

12.2 
23.0 

0.4 
1.9 

5.9 
11.4 

0.2 
0.7 

The  nutritive  ratio  is: 


11.4  +  2.25  X  0.7 
1.9 


or  1:6.8 


This  ration,  except  that  it  is  a  trifle  low  in  dry  substance,  comes  very  close 
to  satisfying  the  standard.  Of  course,  in  many  cases,  especially  until  one 
has  had  considerable  practice  in  the  calculation  of  rations,  the  trial  ration 
may  have  to  be  modified  several  times  before  the  ration  conforms  with 
the  standard.  However,  by  applying  his  practical  knowledge,  the  stock 
feeder  should  not  have  much  difficulty  in  calculating  balanced  rations. 

In  view  of  modern  investigations,  certain  modifications  must  be  made 
to  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  to  adapt  them  to  American  conditions. 
In  practically  every  instance  the  amount  of  dry  substance  prescribed  is 
10  to  20  per  cent  too  high.  The  protein  prescribed  is  from  10  to  40  per  cent 
too  high,  the  greatest  difference  being  in  the  case  of  fattening  and  working 
animals,  and,  consequently,  the  nutritive  ratio  is  too  narrow.  Very  little 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  fat  content  of  the  ration,  it  being  con- 
sidered satisfactory  if  the  requirements  for  protein  and  carbohydrates  are 
fulfilled. 


38 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


The  Armsby  Standards  express  the  requirements  of  farm  animals  in 
pounds  of  digestible  protein  and  in  therms  of  energy.  Instead  of  giving 
separate  standards  for  all  the  different  classes  of  farm  animals,  Armsby 
gives  standards  for  maintenance  and  growth.  Inasmuch  as  any  excess 
of  feed  above  maintenance  may  be  used  for  fattening  or  milk  production, 
he  gives  the  amount  of  nutrients  above  the  maintenance  requirements 
necessary  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain  or  a  pound  of  milk.  Thus,  the  stand- 
ards for  fattening  and  for  milk  production  vary  with  the  amount  of  gain 
or  with  the  amount  of  milk  produced.  To  determine  the  standard  for  a 
fattening  animal,  one  adds  3.5  therms  per  each  pound  of  daily  gain  to  the 
energy  requirement  for  maintenance,  as  all  the  energy  above  the  mainte- 
nance requirement  may  be  used  for  the  production  of  flesh  and  fat.  Armsby 
recommends  that  a  1000-pound  ruminant  should  receive  20  to  30  pounds, 
or  an  average  of  25  pounds  of  dry  matter  per  day.  A  horse  should  have 
somewhat  less.  The  amounts  of  digestible  protein  and  of  energy  in  the 
common  feeding-stuffs  as  presented  by  Armsby  are  given  in  Table  II. 
His  feeding  standards  are  given  in  Table  IV.  For  example,  if  one  desires 
to  calculate  a  ration  for  a  1000-pound  steer  gaining  two  pounds  per  day, 
the  first  step  is  to  determine  the  requirements.  From  Table  IV  it  is  seen 
that  the  requirements  of  a  1000-pound  steer  gaining  two  pounds  per  day 
are  1.8  pounds  of  digestible  protein  and  13.0  therms  of  energy.  As  the 
second  step,  we  will  assume  a  trial  ration  consisting  of  10  pounds  of  corn 
and  8  pounds  of  clover  hay.  Referring  to  Table  II,  it  is  found  that  the 
digestible  protein  and  energy  in  this  ration  are  as  follows: 


Dry 

Substance, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Protein, 
pounds. 

Energy 
therms. 

Corn,  10  pounds  

8.91 

0.68 

8  88 

Clover  hay,  8  pounds  

6.78 

0.43 

2  78 

Total  ration 

15  69 

1  11 

11  66 

Comparing  the  trial  ration  with  the  standard,  we  find  that  it  is  low 
in  both  protein  and  energy.  As  the  third  step,  we  will  add  2  pounds  of 
cottonseed  meal,  as  it  is  high  in  both  protein  and  energy.  The  ration  then 
contains  the  following  nutrients: 


Dry 

Substance, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Protein, 
pounds. 

Energy, 
therms. 

Corn,  10  pounds                                  

8   91 

0.68 

8  88 

Clover  hay,  8  pounds  
Cottonseed  meal,  2  pounds  

6.78 
1.84 

0.43 
0.70 

2.78 
1.68 

Total  ration 

17  53 

1  81 

13  34 

This  ration,  although  a  trifle  low  in  dry  substance,  fulfils  the  requirements 
of  the  Armsby  standard. 


FEEDS    AND    FEEDING 


39 


In  calculating  a  ration  for  a  dairy  cow  according  to  the  Armsby  stand- 
ard, one  adds  to  the  requirements  for  maintenance,  0.05  pounds  of  digest- 
ible protein  and  0.3  therm  of  net  energy  for  each  pound  of  milk  produced. 
For  example,  one  wishes  to  calculate  a  ration  for  a  900-pound  cow  giving 
22  pounds  of  milk.  According  to  Table  IV  the  requirements  are  as  follows : 


Digestible 
Protein,  pounds. 

Energy, 
therms. 

For  maintenance  of  900-pound  cow  

0  45 

5   7 

Additional  for  22  pounds  milk  

1.10 

6.6 

Total  requirement 

1  55 

12  3 

The  ration  is  then  calculated  in  the  manner  previously  described. 

The  Haecker  Standard  for  Dairy  Cows  holds  that  the  requirements 
of  the  dairy  cow  vary  not  only  according  to  her  weight  and  the  quantity 
of  milk  yield,  but  also  according  to  the  quality  of  the  milk.  According  to 
Haecker,  a  1000-pound  cow  requires  for  maintenance  0.7  pound  of  digestible 
crude  protein,  7.0  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  0.1  pound  of 
digestible  fat.  For  each  pound  of  4  per  cent  milk  the  Haecker  standard 
requires  the  addition  of  0.054  pound  of  digestible  crude  protein,  0.24  pound 
of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  0.021  pound  of  digestible  fat  in  addition 
to  the  maintenance  requirement.  If  the  milk  contains  less  than  4  per  cent 
of  fat,  smaller  amounts  of  nutrients  are  prescribed.  The  amounts  of 
digestible  nutrients  to  produce  one  pound  of  milk  containing  various  per- 
centages of  butter  fat  are  given  in  Table  V. 

For  example,  to  calculate  a  ration  according  to  the  Haecker  standard 
for  a  900-pound  cow  giving  20  pounds  of  milk  daily  containing  5  per  cent 
of  butter  fat,  the  process  is  as  follows:  (1)  determine  the  maintenance 
requirement  for  a  900-pound  cow;  (2)  add  to  the  maintenance  require- 
ment the  requirement  to  produce  20  pounds  of  5  per  cent  milk;  and  (3) 
calculate  a  ration  to  conform  with  this  standard.  Thus  a  cow  weighing 
900  pounds  requires  0.63  pound  of  digestible  protein,  6.30  pounds  of 
digestible  carbohydrates  and  0.09  pound  of  digestible  fat  for  maintenance. 
According  to  Haecker,  to  produce  one  pound  of  5  per  cent  milk  requires 
the  consumption  of  0.060  pound  of  digestible  crude  protein;  0.28  pound 
of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  0.024  pound  of  digestible  fat,  in  addition 
to  the  maintenance  requirements.  Thus  the  total  requirement  to  produce 
20  pounds  of  5  per  cent  milk  is  calculated  as  follows: 


Digestible 
Protein, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Carbohydrates, 
pounds. 

Digest  ible 
Fat, 
pounds. 

For  maintenance 

0  63 

6.30 

0.09 

To  produce  20  pounds  of  5  per  cent  milk 

1.22 

5.60 

0.50 

Total 

1  85 

11  90 

0.59 

The  ration  is  then  calculated  in  the  same  manner  as  described  under  the 
discussion  of  the  Wolff-Lehmann  standards. 


40  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

REFERENCES 

"Principles  of  Stock  Feeding."     Smith. 

"Feeds  and  Feeding."     Henry. 

"First  Principles  of  Feeding  Farm  Animals."     Burkett. 

"Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition."     Armsby. 

"Feeding  of  Animals."     Jordan. 

"Productive  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals."     Woll. 

"Profitable  Stock  Feeding."     Smith. 

California  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  256.     "Value  of  Barley  for  Cows  Fed  Alfalfa." 

Illinois  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  172.     "Study  of  Digestion  of  Rations  for  Steers." 

Minnesota  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  140.     "Investigations  in  Milk  Production." 

Missouri  Research  Bulletin  18.     "Maintenance  Requirements  of  Cattle." 

Nebraska  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  151.     "Corn  Silage  and  Alfalfa  for  Beef  Production." 

New  Hampshire  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  175.     "Analysis  of  Feeding-stuffs." 

South  Dakota  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  160.     "Silage  and  Grains  for  Steers." 

Texas  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  170.      "Texas  Feeding- stuffs,  Their   Composition    ana 

Utilization." 
Wisconsin  Expt.  Station  Circular  37.     "The  Feeding  Unit  System  for  Determining 

the  Economy  of  Production  by  Dairy  Cows." 
Wisconsin  Research  Bulletin  26.     "Studies  in  Dairy  Production." 
Wyoming  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  106.     "Cottonseed  Cake  for  Beef  Cattle." 
Pennsylvania  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  111.     "Feeding." 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

346.     "Computation  of  Rations  for  Farm  Animals." 

655.     "Cottonseed  Meal  for  Feeding  Beef  Cattle." 


CHAPTER   4 

HORSES  AND  MULES 

BY  E.  H.  HUGHES 

Assistant  Professor  in  Animal  Husbandry,  College  of  Agriculture, 
University  of  Missouri 

The  horse  even  today  plays  a  very  important  part  in  moving  mer- 
chandise and  performing  other  labor.  The  work  on  our  farms  is  largely 
accomplished  by  the  horse,  and  in  spite  of  the  motor  truck  the  horse  is 


MORGAN  STALLION,  "GENERAL  GATES."* 

considered  indispensable  in  a  large  amount  of  business  in  the  city.  Modern 
methods  of  transportation  move  enormous  quantities  of  freight,  yet  the 
demand  for  the  work  horse  does  not  diminish. 

Development  of  Type. — The  usefulness  of  a  horse  depends  upon  his 
power  of  locomotion  and  the  characteristics  which  adapt  him  to  the  different 


1  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


41 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


kinds  of  service  determine  his  type.  Whether  he  moves  with  power, 
speed,  extreme  action  and  style  or  to  carry  weight,  will  determine  whether 
he  is  a  draft,  a  race,  a  show  or  a  saddle  hoise. 

Our  modern  breeds  of  light  horses  have  probably  been  developed  with 
the  Arabian  horse  as  foundation  stock.  The  Arabians  developed  a  light 
horse  with  endurance  and  courage  for  desert  travel,  and  intelligence  and 
friendliness  for  companionship  on  the  long  journey. 

The  low-lying,  luxuriantly  vegetated  Flanders  led  to  the  development 


A  HIGH-GRADE  WORK  HORSE  OF  FINE  QUALITY  AND  GOOD  CONFORMATION, 
ILLUSTRATING  THE  "POINTS"  OF  A  DRAFT  HORSE. x 

of  the  patient,  sluggish  Flemish  horse  with  plenty  of  power  to  accomplish 
the  heavy  work  required  of  him.  The  Flemish  blood  is  the  most  important 
basis  of  the  draft  types. 

The  Light  Horse. — It  is  essential  that  the  horse  of  this  class  show 
refinement  in  all  his  parts.  His  conformation,  action,  style,  finish  and 
endurance  should  be  such  that  he  can  meet  the  requirements  for  a  distinct 
purpose. 

Action  is  essential  in  this  class.  The  coach  horse  should  show  high 
action;  the  roadster  must  be  able  to  haul  a  light  vehicle  at  a  rapid  trot; 
and  the  saddle  horse  is  required  to  give  the  rider  satisfaction. 


i  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    From  Fanners'  Bulletin  451. 


HORSES    AND    MULES 


43 


Weight  is  not  so  important.  The  carriage  horse  must  necessarily 
be  heavier  than  the  roadster,  because  he  is  required  to  draw  a  heavier 
vehicle  and  the  saddle  horse  must  be  able  to  perform  the  gaits  of  his  class. 
Size  will  depend  upon  the  use  to  which  he  is  put. 

Draft  Type. — Horses  of  this  type  are  used  in  hauling  heavy  loads  at  a 
comparatively  slow  gait,  and  should  possess  strength  and  endurance.  A 


PEECHERON  STALLION.  1 

draft  horse  should  be  massive,  relatively  close  to  the  ground  and  weigh  at 
least  1600  pounds.  He  should  have  a  heavy  body;  a  short,  strong  back;  a 
strong  constitution;  a  sloping  shoulder  and  a  long,  level  croup.  He  should 
also  have  plenty  of  bone  of  good  quality  and  large,  sound  feet.  His  legs 
should  set  properly  under  him  and  his  pasterns  should  be  long  and  sloping. 
The  important  gait  of  the  draft  horse  is  the  walk.  The  stride  should  be 
long  and  straight.  A  combination  of  weight,  muscle  and  good  feet  and 


Courtesy  of  The  Field,  New  York  City. 


44 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


LIGHT  HORSES. 


BREEDS. 

NATIVE 
COUNTRY. 

ORIGIN. 

HEIGHT, 

HANDS. 

WEIGHT, 

POUNDS. 

COLOR. 

OTHER  CHARACTERISTICS, 

Arabian. 

Arabia 

Native  horses. 

14-15.2 

850-1000 

Bay,  brown,  chestnut, 
occasionally  black  or  gray. 

Good  action;  intelligent. 

Thorough- 
bred. 

England. 

Arabian  mixed 
by  English  peo- 
ple. 

14.2-16.2 

900-1100 

Bay,  brown,  chestnut, 
black  or  gray. 

Running  horse;  great 
speed;  intelligent,  some- 
times difficult  to  manage. 

Standard 
bred 
horse. 

America. 

English  horse. 

14-16.2 

900-1200 

Bay,  brown,  chestnut 
or  black;  few  grays  and 
roans. 

Fastest  of  harness  horses; 
remarkable  endurance;  in- 
telligent. 

Morgan 
(branch 
of  stand- 
ard bred) 

America. 

Thoroughbred 
(Justin  Morgan 
foundation 
horse). 

14.3-16 

950-1150 

Bay,  chestnut,  brown 
or  black. 

Not  extreme  action  or 
speed;  noted  for  endur- 
ance; intelligent. 

Saddle. 

.U.  S.: 
Virginia, 
Kentucky, 
Missouri. 

Thoroughbred. 

15-16 

900-1200 

Chestnut,  black,  bay, 
brown,  gray  and  roan. 

Action,  style,  manners, 
five  gaits,  walk,  trot,  can- 
ter, rack,  running-walk, 
foxtrot  or  slow  pace. 

Hackney. 

England. 

Arabian;  thor- 
aughbred  native 
horse. 

13.2-16 

750^1200 

Chestnut,  bay,  brown, 
black,   and   roan,   white 
markings  common. 

Extreme  high  action. 

German  coach,  French  coach  and  Cleveland  bay  horses  have  not  greatly  influenced  the  horse  business  in  this  country. 


DRAFT  HORSES. 


BREED. 

NATIVE 
COUNTRY. 

ORIGIN. 

HEIGHT, 

HANDS. 

WEIGHT, 

POUNDS. 

COLOR. 

OTHER  CHARACTERISTICS. 

Percheron. 

France. 

Native  horses, 
Flemish, 
Arabian. 

15.3-17 

1600-2200 

Gray,     black,     bay, 
brown,  roan,  chestnut. 

Good  action;  intelligent. 

Belgian. 

Belgium. 

Flemish. 

15.3-17 

1600-2400 

Roan,  chestnut  brown, 
black,  gray. 

Compact,  deep  and  wide; 
heavily  muscled. 

English 
Shire. 

England. 

Native  horses, 
Flemish. 

16-17.3 

1700-2400 

Bay,    black,    brown, 
gray,    chestnut,    roan, 
white  on  legs  and  face. 

Largest  of  draft  breeds; 
heavy  feather  on  legs. 

Clydesdale. 

Scotland. 

Native  horses, 
Flemish. 

16-17 

1600-2100 

Bay,    black,   brown, 
chestnut,    roan,    gray, 
white  on  face  and  legs. 

Very   good   action;    in- 
telligent;  feather  on  legs. 

Suffolk- 
punch. 

England. 

Native  horses. 

16-16.2 

1600-2000 

Chestnut. 

Smallest    of    the    draft 
breeds. 

MULES. 


CLASS. 

HEIGHT, 

HANDS. 

WEIGHT, 

POUNDS. 

COLOR. 

OTHER  CHARACTERISTICS. 

Draft. 

16-17.2 

1200-1600 

Bay,  brown,  gray 
or  dun.  Most  desir- 
able color  is  black 
with  a  tan  nose  and 
flank. 

Large,  heavy  boned,  heavy  set  mules. 

Sugar. 

16-17 

1150-1300 

Tall,  with  considerable  quality  and  finish. 

Cotton. 

13.2-15.2 

750-1100 

Small  and  compact,  with  quality. 

Mining. 

12-16 

600-1350 

"Pit"  mules,  small;   "miners,"  large  and  rugged. 

Farm. 

15.2-16 

1000-1350 

Plain  and  thin,  with  good  constitutions. 

HORSES    AND     MULES  45 

legs  should  be  an  indication  of  a  horse's  ability  to  haul  a  load  at  a  fair  rate 
of  speed. 

The  Mule  is  a  hybrid,  having  for  parents  a  mare  and  a  jack.  Because 
of  this  fact  it  shows  many  parental  characteristics  which  are  common  to 
both  ancestors.  It  has  longer  ears  than  the  horse,  a  Roman  nose,  heavy 
lips,  clean  legs,  small,  narrow  feet  of  good  quality,  and  a  scanty  growth  of 


ENGLISH  SHIRE  STALLION.  l 

hair  on  the  tail  and  a  scanty  mane.  The  sexual  organs  of  both  mare  and 
horse  mules  are  undeveloped,  consequently  they  do  not  breed. 

The  mule  is  generally  smaller  than  the  draft  horse,  being  from  14  to 
17  hands  high,  and  weighing  from  600  to  1600  pounds.  Mares  of  good 
quality  weighing  about  1350  pounds  when  bred  to  a  heavy-boned  jack  with 
long  ears  produce  mules  which  have  good  size,  quality  and  action.  As  a 
rule,  mare  mules  bring  better  prices  on  the  market  than  do  horse  mules. 

America  has  done  more  towards  the  economical  development  of  the 


1  Courtesy  of  The  Field,  New  York  City. 
37 


46 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


mule  than  any  other  country,  and  more  than  one-half  the  mules  in  the 
world  are  in  the  United  States. 

Due  to  his  hardiness  and  his  ability  to  take  care  of  himself,  the  mule  is 
adapted  to  most  climates  and  to  kinds  of  work  for  which  it  would  not  be 
practical  to  use  a  horse.  In  most  contagious  and  infectious  diseases, 
however,  the  mule  has  no  more  resistance  than  a  horse. 

Market  Requirements. — The  market  requires  that  a  horse  shall  fill 
some  definite  purpose.  There  is  a  demand  for  good  horses  that  fill  a  definite 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  MARKET  CLASSES  OF  HORSES.* 


CLASS. 

SUB-CLASS. 

HEIGHT, 

HANDS. 

WEIGHT, 

POUNDS. 

OTHER  CHARACTERISTICS. 

Draft. 

Light  draft. 
Heavy  draft. 
Loggers. 

15.3-16.2 
16-17.2 
16.1-17.2 

1600-1750 
1750-2200 

Heavy,  rugged,  compactly  built,  denoting  strength  and 
endurance. 

Chunks. 

Eastern  Ex- 
port. 
Farm. 
Southern. 

15-16 

15-15.3 
15-15.3 

1300-1550 

1200-1400 
800-1250 

The  same  type  as  draft,  except  that  he  is  more  compact  and 
lighter  in  weight. 
Low  down,  blocky  horses  not  as  heavy  as  the  Eastern 
chunk.     Possess  quality  finer  and  not  so  heavy  as  the  other 
sub-classes. 

Wagon. 

Expressers. 

Delivery. 
Artillery. 

Fire  horses. 

15.3-16.2 

15-16 
15.1-16 

15-17.2 

1350-1500 

1100-1400 
1050-1200 

1200-1700 

Upstanding,  deep-bodied,  closely  coupled,  with  good  bone 
quality,  energy  and  spirit. 
Conformation  similar  to  express;  not  so  large. 
Sound,  well  bred,  with  quality;  prompt  action  in  walk,  trot 
or  gallop.     Free  from  vicious  habits,  without  blemish,  and 
broken  to  harness  and  saddle. 
More  rangy  in  conformation  than  expressers;    ability  to 
take  long  runs. 

Carriage. 

Coach. 

Cobs. 
Park. 
Cab. 

15.1-16.1 

14.1-15.1 
15-15.3 
15.2-16.1 

1100-1250 

900-1150 
1000-1150 
1050-1200 

Smoothly  turned,  full-made  horses  with  high  action  com- 
bined with  beauty  of  form. 
Small  horses  of  stocky  build  with  p.enty  of  quality. 
Excellent  quality;  high  act:on. 
Similar  to  coach  horses;  calk  in  finish;  good  feet  and  legs 
and  endurance. 

Road. 

Runabout. 
Roadster. 

14.3-15.2 
15-16 

900-1050 
900-1150 

Not  so  stockily  built  as  cob,  having  more  speed. 
Conformation  more   angular   than   runabouts,    denoting 
speed,  stamina  and  endurance. 

Saddle 
horses. 

Five-gaited. 
Three-gaited. 
Hunters. 

Cavalry. 
Polo  Ponies. 

15-16 
14.3-16 
15.2-16.1 

1.5-15.3 
14-14.2 

900-1200 
900-1200 
1100-1250 

950-1100 
850-1000 

Conformation  denoting  style,  action,  with  strong  back; 
possesses  five  distinct  gaits  under  the  saddle. 
Size  depending  on  weight  to  be  carried  with  ability  to 
walk,  trot  and  canter. 
Large,  strong;    must  be  jumpers;    stand  long  country 
rides. 
Soand.wellbred;  have  quality;  broken  to  saddle;  easy  gaits. 
Smallest  saddle  class;   used  for  playing  polo. 

purpose,  but  misfits  sell  at  a  low  figure.  The  horse  should  be  sound,  at 
least  serviceably  sound,  with  a  conformation  adapted  to  the  work  required 
of  him.  He  should  be  in  good  condition  in  order  to  look  well  and  be  ready 
for  hard  work.  Condition  is  also  an  indication  of  the  health  and  feeding 
quality  of  the  horse.  The  market  requires  that  a  horse  be  broken  and  of 
good  disposition.  Horses  between  five  and  eight  years  old  sell  the  best. 
Solid  colors  are  preferred  because  they  can  be  matched  more  easily,  and 
many  firms  use  their  teams  of  two,  four  or  six  horses  and  equipment  as  a 
part  of  their  advertising. 

*  Illinois  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  122. 


HORSES    AND     MULES 


47 


FIG.  2. — At  two  years  of 
age  the  jaw  shows  greater  width 
than  at  one  year  of  age,  and  the 
teeth  are  all  in  contact  and  show 
considerable  wear. 


FIG.  1. — At^one  year  of  age  the 
jaw  is  narrow,  the  temporary  teeth 
are  small  and  the  corner  incisors  are 
not  yet  in  contact. 


FIG.  3. — At  three  years  of 
age  the  permanent  incisors  above 
and  'below  are  in  wear.  Note  the 
greater  width  and  length  in  com- 
parison to  the  temporary  teeth. 


FIG.  4. — At  four  years 
of  age  the  permanent  and  in- 
termediate incisors  on  lower 
and  upper  jaws  are  in  wear. 
The  corner  pair  of  temporary 
teeth  have  not  been  dis- 
placed; they  appear  very 
small  in  comparison  with  the 
permanent  teeth. 


NOTE. — Photographs  showing  teeth  at  various  ages,  by  courtesy  of  Prof.  S.  T. 
&fmpson,  Agricultural  Extension  Service,  Missouri  Experiment  Station. 


48 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


FIG.  9.— The  cups  in  the  central 
incisors  above  hava  practically  dis- 
appeared at  nine  years. 

FIG.  10. — The  cups  in  the  inter- 
mediate incisors  above  have  dis- 
appeared at  ten  years. 

FIG.  11. — At  eleven  years  the 
tables  on  the  upper  jaw  are  nearly 
smooth. 

FIG.  12. — Note  the  smooth  tables 
and  the  length  of  the  teeth  showing 
considerable  wear  at  fifteen  years. 


FIG.  5. — Complete  set  of  lower 
permanent  incisors  showing  deep  cups 
ao  five  years. 

FIG.  6. — The  cups  in  the  lower 
central  incisors  have  nearly  disappeared 
and  the  tables  are  smooth  at  six  years. 

FIG.  7. — The  cups  in  the  lower  in- 
termediate pair  of  incisors  have  dis- 
appeared at  seven  years. 

FIG.  8. — The  cups  in  the  lower 
corner  pair  of  incisors  have  disappeared 
and  the  tables  are  all  worn  smooth  at 
eight  years. 


FIG.  13.— Showing  a  comparison 
of  the  angles  of  the  jaw  at  five  and 
twenty-one  years.  Note  the  acute 
angle  of  the  teeth  at  twenty-one. 


FIG.  14. — Showing  order  of  appearance 
of  the  permanent  incisors.  The  central  pair 
at  2£  to  3  years.  The  intermediate  pair  at 
3£  to  4  years.  The  corner  or  outside  pair  at 
4£  to  5  years. 


NOTE. — Photographs  showing  teeth  at  various  ages,  by  courtesy  of  Prof.  S.  T. 
Simpson,  Agricultural  Extension  Service,  Missouri  Experiment  Station. 


HORSES   AND   MULES  49 

The  Age  of  the  Horse. — The  teeth  form  the  most  accurate  basis  for 
estimating  the  age  of  a  horse.  The  first  teeth  which  appear  are  called 
colt,  milk  or  temporary  teeth.  As  the  horse  grows  older  these  are  replaced 
by  broader,  thicker,  darker-colored  permanent  teeth. 

The  central  incisors  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  usually  appear  within 
two  weeks  after  foaling.  The  intermediate  incisors,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  central  incisors,  make  their  appearance  between  the  second  and 
fourth  week,  and  the  corner  or  outside  incisors  are  in  at  six  months  of 
age  (Fig.  1). 

The  central  pair  of  permanent  incisors  will  displace  the  temporary 
incisors  and  be  in  use  at  three  years  of  age.  (Fig.  3).  The  permanent 
intermediate  ones  will  be  in  use  at  four  (Fig.  4)  and  the  corner  pair  of 
permanent  incisors  will  displace  the  temporary  corner  or  outside  incisors 
at  five  years  of  age. 

The  five-year-old  horse  has  a  full  mouth  of  permanent  teeth  (Fig.  5). 
These  have  large  cups  that  wear  smooth  as  the  age  of  the  horse  advances. 
The  cups  or  tables  of  the  central  incisors  below  have  worn  smooth  at  six 
years  of  age,  the  intermediate  incisors  below  are  smooth  at  seven  and  the 
corner  pair  at  eight.  (See  Figs.  6,  7  and  8.) 

The  cups  of  the  central  pair  of  incisors  on  the  upper  jaw  have  dis- 
appeared at  nine,  the  intermediates  above  are  smooth  at  ten  and  the 
cups  in  the  corner  incisors  are  worn  smooth  when  the  horse  reaches  his 
twelfth  year.  (See  Figs.  9,  10,  11  and  12.) 

There  is  no  accurate  method  of  estimating  the  age  of  a  horse  after  he 
is  twelve  years  old;  however,  the  angle  of  the  teeth  becomes  more  acute 
as  he  becomes  older  (Fig.  13). 

HORSE  FEEDINGS 

Proper  management  in  feeding  and  caring  for  the  horse  is  an  essential 
for  his  best  health  and  development.  The  digestive  system  of  a  horse 
is  not  large,  therefore  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  roughage  and  a 
relatively  larger  amount  of  grain  is  required.  Sudden  changes  in  feed 
should  be  avoided,  as  the  digestive  system  requires  time  to  readjust  itself 
to  the  new  conditions. 

Grinding  or  soaking  of  feed  is  not  economical  except  in  the  case 
of  colts  or  horses  doing  exceptionally  hard  work;  however,  many 
horsemen  favor  rolling  the  oats  they  feed.  Salt  should  be  accessible  at 
all  times. 

Feeds  for  the  Horse. — It  is  economical  under  most  conditions  to  use 
the  feeds  at  hand.  The  most  common  feeds  for  horses  are  oats  with  timo- 
thy hay,  or  a  mixture  of  timothy  and  clover.  In  many  sections  corn  is 
substituted  for  a  part  or  all  of  the  oats  in  the  ration  and  prairie  hay  or 
alfalfa  is  substituted  for  the  timothy. 

A  combination  of  oats  and  timothy  hay  forms  an  excellent  ration  for 
work  horses.  The  nutrients  are  in  about  the  proper  proportions  and  the 


50  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

bulk  seems  to  fit  the  needs  of  the  horse.  Both  are  usually  free  from  dust. 
For  the  light  horse  that  is  required  to  make  long,  hard  drives  no  satisfactory 
substitute  for  oats  and  timothy  hay  has  been  found. 

Grain. — Corn  and  barley  are  used  extensively  in  some  sections  for  a 
part  or  all  of  the  grain  ration.  Because  of  its  hardness  the  barley  should 
be  ground  or  cracked. 

Bran  and  oil  meal  are  often  used  to  supplement  corn  or  barley,  and 
for  growing  animals  or  brood  mares  corn,  oats  and  bran  form  an  excellent 
ration.  The  bone  and  muscle-building  elements  in  bran  and  its  laxative 
effect  are  considered  indispensable  by  many  horsemen. 

Roughages. — A  mixture  of  timothy  and  clover  is  considered  an  excel- 
lent roughage  for  horses.  Either  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  is  good,  except  for 
horses  doing  heavy  or  rapid  work.  Oat  hay,  when  cut  a  little  green,  forms 
an  excellent  roughage  and  sheaf  oats  are  often  fed  with  good  results.  Millet 
hay  is  considered  unsafe  to  feed  by  most  horsemen. 

Corn  stover  and  oat  straw  are  used  with  success  when  properly  bal- 
anced with  a  grain  ration. 

Good  clean  silage  that  is  not  too  acid  is  an  excellent  feed  for  brood 
mares,  idle  horses  and  growing  colts,  though  it  should  be  fed  in  limited 
quantities  and  with  some  dry  roughage.  It  has  been  fed  with  good  results, 
but  great  care  must  be  exercised  in  feeding.  No  mouldy  or  musty  silage 
should  be  fed. 

Watering. — Horses,  under  natural  conditions,  drink  frequently.  The 
most  common  practice  among  horsemen  is  to  water  the  horses  before 
feeding,  although  many  practice  watering  before  and  after  feeding.  Horses 
that  are  heated  should  be  compelled  to  drink  very  slowly.  The  value  of 
good  running  water  in  the  horse  pasture  cannot  be  overestimated. 

The  Work  Horse. — A  horse  at  work  should  receive  ten  to  eighteen 
pounds  of  grain  daily,  depending  upon  the  kind  of  work  performed  and 
the  size  of  the  horse.  On  days  when  idle  the  grain  ration  should  be  reduced 
and  the  roughage  increased.  The  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  bran  is 
recommended. 

The  Foal. — The  foal  should  be  taught  to  eat  grain  and  hay  as  early 
as  possible.  Oats  and  bran  with  some  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  of  good  quality 
are  the  best  feeds  because  they  contain  the  muscle  and  bone-forming 
elements  required  for  growth. 

While  the  mare  and  colt  are  in  the  pasture  some  grain  can  be  fed  very 
satisfactorily  in  a  small  creep.  After  weaning,  at  about  five  or  six  months 
of  age,  feed  for  growth  rather  than  condition. 

The  Orphan  Foal. — Milk  from  a  fresh  cow,  one  whose  milk  is  low  in 
butter-fat,  is  well  adapted  to  raising  an  orphan  foal.  To  a  dessert-spoonful 
of  granulated  sugar  should  be  added  enough  warm  water  to  dissolve  it. 
To  this  three  tablespoonsful  of  lime-water  and  enough  fresh  milk  to  make 
a  pint  should  be  added.  A  small  amount,  one-half  pint,  should  be  given 
each  hour.  In  a  short  time  the  amount  should  be  increased  and  feed  should 


HORSES    AND     MULES  51 

be  given  every  two  hours,  more  being  given  gradually  and  the  time  between 
feeding  lengthened. 

The  Brood  Mare,  used  for  breeding  purposes  only,  does  well  without 
grain  when  on  good  pasture.  In  winter,  if  she  is  in  foal,  she  should  be 
given  feeds  high  in  protein  and  mineral  matter  for  the  best  development 
of  the  foetus.  She  should  receive  plenty  of  exercise  at  all  times. 

The  Stallion. — Good  whole  oats  and  bran  with  plenty  of  clean  timothy 
hay  is  a  very  good  ration  for  the  stallion.  The  addition  of  corn  or  barley 
to  the  ration  lends  variety  and  increases  its  palatability.  Exercise  is  at 
all  times  absolutely  essential  for  the  best  results  with  any  stallion.  When 
standing  for  service  he  should  be  required  to  walk  six  to  ten  miles  per  day. 

STANDARD  RATIONS 

Foals:  Parts.  Parte.  Parta. 

Ground  oats 6  Oats 4  Oats 4 

Ground  corn 2  Corn 4  Bran 4 

Bran 2  Bran 2  Cora 2 

Whole  oats     } 

Shelled  corn   > equal  parts. 

Bran 

With  either  of  the  above  rations,  feed  clover,  alfalfa,  or  timothy  and  clover 

mixed. 
Work  Horses: 

Oats 5  Oats.  Corn 9 

Corn 5  Hay.  Oatmeal 1 

Hay.  Hay. 

Timothy  and  clover  mixed  or  just  timothy  is  recommended  as  roughage. 
Brood  Mare: 

Corn 4  Corn 7  Corn 8 

Oats 4  Bran 2  Linseed  oil  meal  1 

Bran 2  Linseed  oil  meal  1 

Clover  or  alfalfa  of  good  quality,  or  timothy  and  clover  mixed  are  good 

l   roughages  to  feed  with  the  above  grain  rations. 

Grooming. — For  the  best  health  of  the  horse  he  should  be  groomed 
before  he  is  harnessed  and  at  night  after  the  harness  has  been  removed. 
A  good  currycomb,  a  stiff  brush  and  a  soft  woolen  cloth  are  the  only  uten- 
sils ordinarily  needed.  The  currycomb  is  used  to  loosen  the  dirt  and  sweat 
in  the  hair  and  skin  over  the  body  and  is  followed  by  the  brush.  The 
woolen  cloth  is  then  nibbed  very  firmly  over  the  entire  body  to  take  up 
the  fine  dust  and  to  put  the  coat  in  good  condition. 

REFERENCES 

'Productive  Horse  Husbandry."     Gay. 
'The  Horse  Book."     Johnston. 
'The  Horse."     Roberts. 
'Breaking  and  Training  Horses."     Harper. 
'Management  and  Breeding  of  Horses."     Harper. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

451.     "Draft  Horses  and  Care  of  Horses." 
667.     "Breaking  and  Training  Colts." 


CHAPTER   5 

BEEF  CATTLE 

BY  W.  A.  COCHEL 
Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry,  Kansas  Agricultural  College 

Beef  production  is  associated  with  the  best  type  of  farming  in  every 
country.  A  careful  survey  of  any  community  shows  that  the  cattlemen 
are  leaders  in  public  matters,  are  financially  responsible,  farm  the  best 
land  and  are  considered  among  the  best  citizens.  Counties  and  communi- 


PUBE-BRED  HEREFORD  BuLL.1 
A  hardy,  early  maturing,  beef  breed  of  good  quality. 

ties  noted  for  their  production  of  beef  are  also  noted  for  their  large  yields 
of  agricultural  crops  and  their  great  productive  wealth.  There  never  has 
been  a  permanent  and  profitable  system  of  farming  established  on  an 
extensive  scale  in  any  country  where  beef  cattle  have  been  eliminated  from 


1  Courtesy  of  The  Field,  New  York  City. 


(52) 


BEEF    CATTLE  53 


the  farms.  Beef  cattle  make  the  greatest  and  most  profitable  use  of  rough- 
age and  grass,  are  comparatively  free  from  disease,  require  less  shelter  and 
attention  than  other  farm  animals,  enable  the  farmer  to  distribute  his 
work  uniformly  throughout  the  year  and  are  easily  marketed. 

Sources  of  Profit. — The  cattleman  has  four  sources  of  profit:  (1) 
from  growing  crops;  (2)  from  feeding  crops;  (3)  from  using  by-products 
which  otherwise  have  no  market  value,  such  as  straw,  stover,  damaged 
hay  and  grain;  and  (4)  from  increasing  soil  fertility  and  the  yield  of  crops. 
It  frequently  happens  that  the  greatest  profit  comes  from  the  use  of  farm 
by-products  and  the  increase  of  soil  fertility.  The  successful  cattleman  of 
the  future  must  be  as  good  a  farmer  as  the  man  w,ho  produces  grain  and 
hay  for  the  market,  and  also  have  the  ability  and  judgment  to  select  and 
feed  animals  that  can  convert  grain  and  hay  into  meat  profitably. 

There  are  four  distinct  methods  of  handling  beef  cattle,  dependent 
upon  the  amount  of  capital  available  and  the  kind  of  crops  adapted  to  the 
farm,  as  follows:  (1)  breeding  pure-bred  cattle,  (2)  producing  stockers  and 
feeders,  (3)  grazing  cattle,  and  (4)  fattening  cattle. 

Breeding  Pure-Bred  Cattle. — This  is  the  highest  type  of  beef  produc- 
tion and  requires  the  investment  of  a  large  amount  of  money  for  a  series 
of  years.  The  breeder  must  not  only  understand  and  practice  the  best 
methods  of  breeding,  feeding  and  developing  livestock,  but  must  also  follow 
the  best  methods  of  farming.  He  should  keep  the  buildings  and  grounds 
neat  and  attractive  to  impress  customers  with  the  fact  that  breeding  pure- 
bred livestock  is  profitable  and  attractive. 

Excellent  pasture  should  be  available  for  summer  grazing  and  the  best 
methods  of  feeding  must  be  practiced  during  the  winter  to  develop  the 
inherited  type  and  form  to  the  maximum.  More  breeders  fail  because  of 
poor  feeding  than  of  any  other  one  factor.  In  addition  to  the  ability  to 
select  the  approved  type  of  the  breed  and  to  feed  successfully,  the  breeder 
of  pure-bred  cattle  must  be  a  business  man  and  a  salesman  so  that  he  can 
successfully  dispose  of  what  he  produces.  It  is  usually  better  for  the 
beginner  to  start  with  grade  or  market  cattle  and,  if  he  succeeds,  to  purchase 
a  few  pure-bred  animals  and  go  into  the  business  gradually,  than  to  invest 
all  his  capital  in  a  specialty  with  which  he  is  unacquainted. 

Producing  Stockers  and  Feeders. — The  production  of  stockers  and 
feeders  should  be  confined  to  those  parts  of  the  country  where  the  larger 
part  of  the  land  cannot  be  plowed  profitably,  and  grass  is  the  principal 
crop.  This  class  of  cattle  is  kept  on  grass  during  the  summer  season  and 
fed  on  roughage,  with  little  or  no  grain,  during  the  remainder  of  the  year. 
Lying  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  a  large  area  which  is  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  production  of  grass  and  roughage,  such  as  Kaffir  and  sor- 
ghums on  the  uplands,  and  alfalfa  on  the  bottom  land,  and  which  logically 
should  be  the  great  stocker  and  feeder  producing  section  of  the  United 
States.  Where  both  legumes  and  silage  crops  are  produced,  little  or  no 
commercial  feeds  are  required.  If  it  is  impossible  to  grow  legumes,  protein 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


should  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  linseed  meal,  cottonseed  cake  or  some  other 
protein  concentrate. 

It  is  essential  that  cattle  of  the  best  beef  type  be  used  in  producing 
stockers  or  feeders,  because  the  chief  profit  comes  from  producing  animals 
of  superior  merit  for  which  there  is  always  a  keen  demand.  It  is  very 
important  that  the  herd  of  cattle  used  for  this  purpose  be  uniform  in  type, 
color,  size,  breeding  and  quality  and  that  the  animals  have  large  feeding 
capacity,  because  buyers  prefer  to  buy  feeders  or  stockers  as  nearly  alike 
as  possible. 

Grazing  Cattle.  —  The  business  of  grazing  cattle  is  generally  followed 
in  those  sections  where  the  area  of  land  in  cultivation  is  very  small  compared 
with  that  which  must  be  left  in  grass.  The  cattle  are  seldom  produced  in 
the  grazing  sections,  but  are  usually  shipped  in  by  the  train-load  about  the 
first  of  May,  and  are  pastured  on  grass  until  they  are  fat  enough  to  be 
marketed  as  grass-fat  cattle  during  the  late  summer  and  early  fall. 

The  cattle  used  to  convert  grass  into  fat  are  usually  older,  coarser  and 
plainer  than  cattle  selected  to  convert  corn  into  the  same  product.  Not 
so  much  attention  is  paid  to  quality  and  breeding  as  in  pure-bred  cattle, 
stockers  or  feeders,  because  the  profit  comes  from  the  increase  in  value 
secured  by  fattening  rather  than  in  the  final  price  per  hundredweight. 
Very  thin  steers,  three  years  old  or  older,  make  much  larger  gains  than 
younger  or  fatter  cattle.  However,  it  frequently  happens  that  when 
fleshier  cattle  are  used,  they  may  be  shipped  from  grass  earlier  in  the 
season,  thus  avoiding  extreme  heat,  flies,  water  shortage  or  a  heavy  run 
of  cattle  on  the  market,  which  will  more  than  overbalance  the  larger  gains 
made  by  thinner  cattle. 

Fattening  Cattle.  —  This  has  proven  profitable  in  sections  where  corn 
is  the  leading  crop  and  the  area  devoted  to  permanent  pasture  is  relatively 
small.  The  kind  of  cattle  selected  for  the  feed  lot  depends  upon  the  season 
of  the  year,  the  feeds  available,  the  probable  demand  for  the  cattle  when  fat 
and  the  experience  of  the  feeder.  Young  cattle  make  cheaper  gains  than 
older  cattle,  but  they  require  a  longer  feeding  period  to  become  fat,  because 
they  use  a  large  part  of  their  feed  for  growth. 

Calves  that  are  to  be  fattened  should  show  quality  and  breeding. 
They  should  have  short  legs  and  blocky,  broad,  deep  bodies,  otherwise 
they  will  grow  rather  than  fatten.  It  will  require  from  eight  to  nine 
months  from  the  time  calves  are  weaned  to  make  them  prime  even  when 
on  full  feed.  An  excellent  ration  is  ten  pounds  of  silage,  five  pounds  of 
alfalfa  hay,  one  pound  of  linseed  meal  or  cottonseed  cake  per  head  daily, 
and  all  the  corn  they  can  eat.  Older  cattle  consume  more  roughage  in 
proportion  to  the  grain  and  are  fed  where  corn  is  relatively  scarce. 

To  fatten  cattle  successfully  and  to  secure  satisfactory  gains,  the 
ration  should  be  improved  as  the  animals  become  fat.  The  customary  farm 
practice  is  to  start  the  cattle  on  roughage,  such  as  silage,  hay  and  fodder, 
with  about  six  pounds  of  corn  per  thousand  pounds  liveweight  daily,  and 


BEEF     CATTLE 


to  increase  the  amount  of  corn  as  they  become  fatter.     This  makes  the 
period  when  they  are  really  on  full  feed  very  short. 

Fitting  Show  Animals. — The  production  of  show  animals  is  in  reality 
a  form  of  advertisement,  and  is  restricted  largely  to  the  breeders  of  pure- 
bred cattle.  Every  art  known  to  the  feeder  is  utilized  to  develop  such 
animals.  The  ration  is  quite  similar  to  that  fed  to  fattening  animals 
during  the  last  part  of  the  feeding  period,  and  is  improved  by  grinding 
the  grain,  cutting  the  hay  and  adding  a  greater  variety  of  feeds.  Some- 
times barley  is  boiled  and  fed  at  the  rate  of  one  gallon  per  day  and  sugar 
or  molasses  is  mixed  with  the  grain  to  increase  the  palatability.  In  fact, 
everything  possible  is  done  to  keep  up  the  animaPs  appetite. 

THE   SELECTION   OF   CATTLE   FOR  THE   FEED   LOT 

The  selection  of  cattle  for  the  feed  lot  is  probably  the  most  vital 
question  before  the  cattle  feeders  today.  Upon  this  one  problem  depends 
the  ultimate  financial  success  of  those  who  make  a  business  of  converting 
grain  and  roughage  into  beef.  There  are  three  factors  which  should  always 
be  given  consideration:  (1)  the  purpose  for  which  the  cattle  are  to  be 
used,  (2)  the  ability  of  the  individuals  to  consume  feed  over  and  above  that 
required  for  maintenance,  and  (3)  the  probable  demand  for  beef  when  the 
cattle  are  returned  from  the  feed  lots. 

Methods  of  Feeding. — Cattle  feeders  may  be  divided  into  different 
groups  according  to  their  methods  of  feeding:  (1)  those  who  produce 
market-topping  animals,  (2)  those  who  handle  shortfed  cattle,  and  (3) 
those  who  produce  the  great  bulk  of  beef  which  usually  finds  its  way  to 
market  after  a  period  of  grazing  or  roughing  followed  by  a  finishing  period 
of  either  short  or  long  duration. 

Characteristics  of  Good  Feeders. — It  makes  little  difference  which 
method  is  followed.  The  essential  characteristics  of  a  good  feeding  steer 
remain  constant.  He  must  have  good  constitution  and  capacity  associated 
with  as  much  quality  and  type  as  it  is  possible  to  secure.  A  wide,  strong, 
short  head;  short,  thick  neck;  and  deep,  wide  chest  indicate  constitution, 
and  a  deep,  roomy  barrel  indicates  capacity.  These  characteristics  may 
be  found  in  steers  of  plain  as  well  as  of  excellent  breeding,  which  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  individual  dairy  and  scrub  steers  frequently  make  as 
rapid  gains  in  the  feed  lot  as  beef-bred  steers.  The  type,  quality,  form 
and  finish  as  indicated  by  the  deep  covering  of  muscle,  even  distribution 
of  fat,  high  percentage  of  the  higher  priced  cuts  of  meats,  high  dressing 
percentage,  smoothness  and  symmetry  of  carcass,  and  quality  and  texture 
of  meat,  are  always  associated  with  beef  blood. 

The  success  of  a  feeder  buyer  depends  largely  upon  his  ability  to  see 
in  thin  cattle  the  possibility  of  improvement  which  results  from  the  deposit 
of  fat.  As  a  general  rule,  there  is  little  change  in  the  skeleton  proper.  A 
feeder  with  a  low  back  will  finish  into  a  fat  steer  with  a  low  back.  A  feeder 
with  a  high  tail,  head  or  prominent  hook-bones  will  finish  into  a  fat  steer 


(56) 


BEEF    CATTLE  57 


with  these  same  deficiencies.  A  feeder  with  a  long,  narrow  head,  long  legs, 
or  shallow  body  will  not  alter  his  type  in  the  feed  lot.  The  greatest 
improvement  comes  in  those  regions  of  the  body  where  the  natural  covering 
of  muscle  is  thickest,  in  the  shoulder,  crops,  back,  loin  and  round.  The 
body  will  increase  more  in  width  than  in  length  and  will  decrease  in  apparent 
paunchiness  due  to  the  greater  proportional  increase  in  the  width  of  the 
upper  half  of  the  body  than  in  the  lower  half.  The  quality  of  meat  will 
be  improved  by  the  deposit  of  fat  within  the  bundles  of  muscle  fiber,  and 
the  tenderness  of  meat  will  be  improved  because  of  the  distention  of  all  cells 
with  fat,  and  the  proportion  of  edible  to  non-edible  parts  of  the  animal 
will  increase  during  the  fattening  period.  These  are  potent  reasons  for 
the  immense  industry  represented  by  the  cattle  feeders. 

Kind  of  Feed  Related  to  Class  of  Cattle. — In  addition  to  these  factors 
which  are  inherent  in  the  steer,  the  successful  feeder  buyer  must  give 
attention  to  the  kind  of  feeds  at  his  disposal.  If  he  intends  to  use  a  large 
amount  of  grass  or  roughage  in  proportion  to  grain,  he  should  select  thin 
steers  carrying  some  age.  Older  and  thinner  cattle  will  make  better  use 
of  roughage  than  those  which  are  younger  and  fleshier.  If  the  feeder  has 
a  large  acreage  of  corn  and  comparatively  little  pasture  and  roughage,  he 
should  select  either  heavy,  fleshy  feeders  which  he  can  return  to  market 
within  a  comparatively  short  time,  or  fancy  calves  of  the  best  possible  type 
and  breeding  which  will  develop  into  prime  yearlings.  If  heavy  fleshy 
feeders  are  selected,  their  quality  and  type  should  determine  their  market 
value,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  plainer  sort.  The  probable  demand  for 
the  various  grades  of  beef  at  the  close  of  the  feeding  period  is  also  a  deter- 
mining factor.  The  feeder  should  limit  his  selection  to  those  cattle  which 
will  make  the  greatest  improvement  in  value  per  hundred  pounds  while 
in  the  feed  lot. 

Calves  and  Yearlings. — Quality  and  type  are  essential  in  the  selection 
of  calves  for  feeding  purposes.  They  should  be  bred  for  early  maturity, 
otherwise  they  will  grow  rather  than  fatten  and  the  cost  of  production 
will  exceed  their  market  value.  The  majority  of  yearlings  are  marketed 
from  sixty  to  ninety  days  before  they  are  fat,  which  indicates  that  it  is 
essential  to  secure  calves  of  the  type  that  will  fatten.  The  feeder  should 
realize  that  he  is  entering  into  a  proposition  that  requires  eight  to  twelve 
months  to  complete  and  that  he  must  feed  the  best  of  feeds  in  a  concen- 
trated form  to  secure  satisfactory  gains  and  finish. 

Time  to  Market. — The  time  to  market  fat  cattle  is  when  further  gains 
will  not  result  in  an  increase  in  the  value  per  hundredweight.  For  this 
reason  plain,  rough  steers  which  will  not  produce  attractive  carcasses 
should  be  sold  before  they  are  thoroughly  fattened.  When  fancy  cattle 
of  quality  and  type  are  fed,  it  is  a  general  rule  that  they  are  more  profit- 
able the  fatter  they  become,  because  there  is  usually  a  demand  for  fancy 
finished  beef. 

The  season  of  the  year  also  controls  to  some  extent  the  quality  of 


58  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

cattle  that  should  go  into  the  feed  lot.  Where  grain-fed  steers  are  to  be 
marketed  from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  first  of  December,  a  better  grade 
of  cattle  and  a  higher  finish  are  demanded  than  at  any  other  season  of 
the  year.  In  the  late  summer  and  early  fall  the  markets  are  usually  well 
supplied  with  beef  that  has  been  produced  cheaply  on  grass  with  which 
the  half -fat  grain-fed  cattle  cannot  compete  profitably.  After  the  Christ- 
mas holidays  all  the  cattle  come  from  dry  lots  and  have  been  fattened 
on  expensive  feedstuffs  so  that  the  plain,  rough  cattle  can  be  marketed 
to  better  advantage  than  during  the  grazing  season,  because  the  com- 
petition of  grass-fed  cattle  is  eliminated. 

The  reasons  for  feeding  beef  cattle  are  that  they  reduce  farm  crops 
into  a  more  concentrated  market  product  and  they  are  a  means  of  per- 
manently maintaining  the  soil  fertility.  All  feeding  operations  should 
be  conducted  with  these  facts  in  mind.  The  selection  of  feeding  cattle 
which  will  serve  the  purpose  and  at  the  same  time  Droduce  an  immediate 
profit  is  the  mark  of  the  successful  cattle  feeder. 

THE  DEFICIENCY  IN  THE  MEAT  SUPPLY 

Statistics  need  not  be  presented  to  substantiate  the  assertion  that 
there  is  a  decided  deficiency  in  the  supply  of  meat.  The  shortage  is  the 
result  of  a  long-continued  series  of  years  during  which  the  final  value  of 
the  finished  animal  was  less  than  the  market  value  of  the  crops  necessary 
for  its  production.  During  the  early  development  of  the  country  there 
were  a  considerable  number  of  meat  animals  bred  and  fed  in  the  Atlantic 
states.  When  the  territory  west  of  the  Alleghenies  and  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River  was  settled.,  the  breeding  industry  moved  to  this  section 
because  cattle  were  the  only  means  of  marketing  the  grass,  grain  and 
forage.  When  transportation  facilities  were  provided  for  the  shipment 
of  grain  and  other  farm  products,  the  breeding  industry  moved  on  to 
Missouri,  Iowa,  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  where  more  favorable  conditions 
existed.  Here  it  dominated  the  agricultural  practice  until  the  free  range 
in  the  West  was  made  available  through  the  suppression  of  lawlessness. 
The  trend  of  the  cattle-breeding  industry  has  been  westward  toward  the 
less  expensive  grazing  lands,  until  there  is  now  no  cheap  land  available. 
With  the  decline  of  breeding  operations,  finishing  or  fattening  for  market 
became  a  well-established  practice  in  those  sections  where  the  breeding 
of  livestock  was  unprofitable.  The  result  of  this  condition  is  that  the 
demand  for  animals  suitable  for  the  feed  lot  has  finally  become  so  great 
that  the  West  is  no  longer  able  to  furnish  an  adequate  supply  of  feeders, 
with  subsequent  high  prices. 

In  recent  years  the  papers  and  magazines  have  kept  up  an  almost 
continual  agitation  against  the  high  price  of  meat.  The  high  price  has 
been  attributed  to  the  avarice  of  the  farmer,  the  packer,  the  stockyards 
or  the  retail  dealer,  rather  than  to  the  laws  of  supply  and  demand.  It  has 
discouraged  many  from  entering  into  a  legitimate  business  venture  for 


BEEF    CATTLE  59 


fear  that  unfavorable  public  opinion  might  at  any  time  crystallize  into 
the  form  of  laws  of  such  restrictive  nature  as  to  obliterate  profits. 

Reliable  data  in  regard  to  methods  of  meat  production  are  insufficient 
to  enable  us  to  recommend  practices  which  can  be  substantiated  by  records 
of  unquestioned  reliability.  There  is,  however,  so  great  an  abundance 
of  information  as  to  methods  of  fattening  that  it  is  possible  for  one  familiar 
with  the  publications  and  the  general  farm  practices  to  recommend  rations 
which  are  certain  to  produce  rapid  and  economical  gains  in  the  feed  lot 
with  acceptable  dressing  percentages. 

Tenant  Farming  Unfavorable  to  Beef  Production. — The  rapid  growth 
of  tenant  farming  has  eliminated  the  production  of  meat  from  thousands 
of  acres  of  land  which  should  never  have  been  plowed,  and  will  probably 
continue  to  exert  a  depressing  influence  upon  the  business  until  the  value 
of  farm  lands  is  based  upon  production  rather  than  upon  speculation. 
Under  the  present  system  of  renting,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  handle 
beef  cattle  profitably  on  a  tenant  farm.  The  cattle  business  requires  a 
number  of  years  to  develop  and  a  system  of  farming  that  will  produce 
the  feeds  necessary  to  maintain  a  herd  of  cattle  during  the  winter.  A 
further  reason  is  that  the  chief  profit  in  cattle  farming  is  the  increase  in 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  yield  of  crops  which  comes  from  using  the 
manure  on  the  land.  Where  land  is  rented  annually  there  is  no  incentive 
to  build  it  up  and  increase  crop  production  when  a  different  renter  may 
farm  it  the  next  year.  A  system  of  longer  leases  must  result  which  will 
give  the  tenant  an  incentive  to  increase  rather  than  exhaust  the  fertility 
of  the  soil. 

Breeding  Cattle  Requires  Capital. — If  means  of  financing  breeding 
operations  were  provided,  the  supply  of  breeding  animals  on  both  farms 
and  ranges  would  be  increased  tremendously.  It  is  possible  for  a  farmer 
who  has  produced  a  crop  of  corn  or  has  pasture,  to  go  to  almost  any  bank 
and  secure  funds  with  which  to  purchase  steers  to  consume  these  products. 
Money  is  loaned  for  ninety  to  one  hundred  and  eighty  days  with  the 
privilege  of  renewal.  It  is  impossible,  however,  for  him  to  borrow  the 
same  money  with  breeding  females  as  security,  because  three  to  five  years 
must  elapse  before  the  increase  will  be  marketable.  This  is  probably 
the  greatest  problem  to  be  solved  if  breeding  operations  are  to  be  materially 
increased  in  the  near  future. 

Breeding  herds  should  be  established  in  the  South,  the  East  and  in 
the  cut-over  districts  near  the  Great  Lakes  on  the  land  that  is  adapted 
to  the  production  of  pasture  grasses.  More  attention  should  be  given 
to  pastures  to  increase  their  carrying  capacity  by  fertilizing  them  with 
manure  or  fertilizers,  by  thickening  the  stand  of  grass  by  natural  or  artificial 
means  and  by  using  silage  during  unfavorable  periods.  While  grass  is 
the  most  important  crop  produced  in  the  United  States,  more  land  being 
devoted  to  its  production  than  to  all  others  except  trees,  there  is  not  an 
important  investigational  project  on  the  subject  reported  which  the  meat 


60  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

producer  can  use  in  a  practical  manner.  Throughout  the  great  grazing 
areas  of  the  country  something  of  definite  permanent  value  must  be  done 
to  re-establish  pastures  or  the  supply  of  feeding  stock  will  diminish  rather 
than  increase  in  the  next  few  years. 

The  tremendous  waste  of  the  farm  by-products  of  the  cereal  crops, 
corn,  oats  and  wheat,  which  takes  place  annually  throughout  the  entire 
country  is  sufficient  to  maintain  thousands  of  animals  in  good  breeding 
condition.  This  material  has  not,  as  yet,  been  successfully  used  on  a  large 
scale,  but  recent  investigational  work  indicates  that  the  use  of  a  succulent 
feed  during  the  winter  makes  these  dry,  coarse  feeds  palatable  to  a  large 
extent.  Refinement  in  the  methods  of  feeding  will  in  the  future  enable 
us  to  utilize  other  waste  products  which  are  now  considered  almost 
worthless. 

In  the  sub-humid  sections,  the  use  of  the  silo  to  preserve  drought- 
resisting  crops,  such  as  Kaffir,  milo,  feterita  and  sorghums,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  new  crops,  such  as  Sudan  grass,  will  make  it  possible  to  more 
than  double  the  livestock  production  of  that  area.  In  all  parts  of  the 
United  States  at  least  300  pounds  increase  in  weight  can  be  secured  on 
the  average  two-year-old  steer  by  furnishing  him  an  abundance  of  grass 
in  the  summer  and  an  abundance  of  roughage  in  the  winter.  A  limited 
amount  of  high  protein  feed  should  be  used  to  make  up  the  deficiency  cf 
the  ordinary  roughages  usually  produced  where  legumes  cannot  be  success- 
fully grown. 

It  is  probable  that  the  loss  of  livestock  from  infectious  and  contagious 
diseases  will  be  greatly  reduced  by  the  practice  of  sanitary  measures,  that 
a  more  careful  study  of  breeding  will  result  in  the  production  of  animals 
of  greater  efficiency,  that  a  better  knowledge  of  feeding  will  result  in 
decreasing  the  cost  of  production,  but  the  most  potent  remedy  for  the 
present  deficiency  in  the  meat  supply  is  now  being  administered  in  the 
form  of  market  values  which  leave  a  reasonable  profit  to  the  man  who 
has  courage  to  invest  his  capital  in  breeding  cattle  and  the  feeds  necessary 
to  maintain  them.  The  farmer,  as  a  business  man,  increases  his  operations 
along  those  lines  which  promise  to  return  the  greatest  profit. 

REFERENCES 

"Beef  Production."     Mumford. 

Indiana  Expt.  Station  Circular  29.     "  Livestock  Judging  for  Beginners." 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

588.     "Economical  Cattle  Feeding  in  the  Corn  Belt." 

580.     "Beef  Production  in  the  South." 

612.     "Breeds  of  Beef  Cattle." 
Pennsylvania  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  133.     "Steer  Feeding  Experiments." 


CHAPTER  6 

SWINE 

BY  JOHN  M.  EWARD 

Chief  in  Swine  Production,  Animal  Husbandry  Section, 
Iowa  Experiment  Station 

The  hog  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  and  profitable  domestic  animals 
the  farm  can  produce. 

In  the  selection  of  the  herd  these  factors  need  to  be  considered: 
1.  Personal  Preference  is  a  most  important  consideration. 


CHESTER  WHITE  BOAR.* 

2.  The  Feeds  Available. — In  the  corn  belt  lard  type  hogs  are  best 
because  of  their  adaptation,  whereas  in  Canada  a  bacon  type  will  utilize 
the  northern  grown  feeds  to  better  commercial  advantage. 

3.  Location  and  Climate. — The  hog  that  is  best  for  a  certain  county  in 


Courtesy  of  The  Field,  New  York  City. 


(61) 


62 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


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SWINE  63 


Iowa  may  be  ill-adapted  to  a  county  in  Maine  because  various  community 
conditions,  such  as  customs,  pasture  range  and  cattle  raising  have  their 
unmistakable  effects.  The  climate  in  the  South,  because  of  the  hot,  long 
hours  of  piercing  sunshine,  puts  the  white  hog  at  some  disadvantage, 
whereas  in  the  northern  country  he  gets  along  exceptionally  well. 

4.  Distribution. — A  large  number  of  swine  of  one  type  in  a  certain 
district  usually  indicates  that  they  are  well  adapted.  When  in  doubt, 
that  breed  which  is  well  distributed  in  the  community  should  be  adopted. 
To  raise  Poland  Chinas  in  a  county  where  practically  none  but  Tam- 


CHESTEB  WBITB  Sows.1 
Lard  Type  Hogs. 

worths  were  raised,  may  result  in  disappointment,  this  being  especially 
true  if  one  depends  upon  local  buyers  for  the  sale  of  hogs. 

5.  Markets. — A  nearby  market  which  demands  the  bacon  type, 
discriminating  against  the  lard  type,  pound  for  pound,  would  have  much 
influence  in  determining  the  kind  of  swine  to  raise  in  that  particular 
section. 

Breeds  of  Swine. — The  two  principal  types  of  hogs  are  the  lard  and 
the  bacon.  Lard  hogs  are  noted  for  their  great  depth,  breadth,  general 
compactness,  smoothness,  short  legs,  large  hams,  heavy  jowls,  relatively 
heavy  shoulders,  mellow  finish  (due  to  heavy  fat  layers)  and  docile 

i  Courtesy  of  The  Field,  New  York  City. 


64 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


i  Courtesy  of  The  Field,  New  York  City. 


SWINE  65 


temperament.  Bacon  hogs  stand  in  marked  contrast  in  that  the  typi- 
cal representatives  have  greater  relative  length,  medium  depth  and 
breadth,  similar  smoothness  but  more  trimness,  long  legs;  small,  trim, 
tapering  hams;  very  neat,  tidy  jowls;  very  light  and  trim  shoulders; 
exceptionally  firm  finish  (with  slight  external  fat  layers)  and  active 
temperament. 

The  general  or  dual  purpose  breeds  are  a  combinaton  of  the  bacon 
and  lard  types,  emphasis  being  placed  upon  the  development  of  suitable 
market  hams,  bacon,  ribs  and  loin,  as  well  as  the  tendency  to  produce 
marketable  animals  suitable  for  lard. 

The  most  typical  lard  type  representatives  are  the  Poland  Chinas, 
black  with  white  markings  or  spotted  black,  white  and  sandy;  the  Duroc 
Jerseys,  entirely  of  a  cherry  red;  and  the  Chester  Whites,  wholly  white. 
These  three  breeds  are  especially  popular  in  the  corn  belt,  and  deservedly 
so.  Other  lard  type  breeds  are  the  Mulefoots,  black,  sometimes  with  white 
markings;  the  Victorias,  white;  the  Cheshires,  white;  the  Suffolks,  white; 
the  small  Yorkshires,  white;  the  Essex,  black;  and  the  Sapphires,  blue 
(sometimes  white  markings). 

The  typical  bacon  type  representatives  are  the  large  Yorkshires, 
white;  and  the  Tam worths,  red;  both  being  especially  prominent  in  Can- 
ada and  the  northern  United  States. 

The  dual  purpose  representatives  are  the  Berkshires,  black  with  white 
markings;  the  Hampshires,  black  with  white  belt;  and  the  middle  white  or 
middle  Yorkshires,  white  but  little  known  in  this  country. 

Of  ^he  breeds  mentioned,  seven  are  white,  six  all  black  or  black  with 
either  white  or  sandy  markings,  two  red  and  one  blue.  The  most  widely 
distributed  pigs  in  the  Canadian  country  are  white,  whereas  in  the  corn 
belt  and  southern  districts  they  are  either  black  or  red.  This  probably 
represents  climatic  adaptation. 

Grading  Up  the  Herd. — An  ordinary  farm  herd  composed  of  native 
individuals  may  be  advantageously  graded  up  by  using  successive  pure- 
bred sires  of  the  same  breed.  The  first-cross  animals  are  especially  vigorous 
for  market  as  well  as  for  breeding  purposes;  they  gain  very  rapidly  and 
economically,  and  likewise  make  very  good  mothers. 

In  a  grading-up  program,  assuming  that  a  Duroc  Jersey  is  used  for  the 
first  cross  and  the  offspring  of  the  first  cross  are  again  bred  to  Duroc 
Jersey  sires,  it  is  surprising  how  quickly  the  offspring  approach  the  Duroc 
types.  In  a  few  years,  providing  gilts  only  are  kept  each  year  for  breeding, 
a  typical  Duroc  Jersey  herd,  resembling  closely  the  typical  pure  breed, 
will  be  a  reality.  The  same  grading-up  process  may  be  followed  with  any 
pure  breed.  This  is  an  excellent  practice  and  one  to  be  followed  with 
profit  in  the  production  of  a  uniform,  dependable  market  type. 

The  crossing  of  breeds  already  crossed  is  to  be  discouraged,  largely 
because  of  the  heterogeneous  individuals  which  result,  these  being  of 
various  types,  sizes,  colors  and  so  on;  this  dissimilarity  of  offspring  being 


66 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


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SWINE  67 


all  the  more  marked  if  the  original  pure-breds  used  are  very  different  and 
less  true  if  they  are  very  similar. 

Age  of  Breeding  Stock. — Mature  sows  as  compared  to  gilts  enjoy 
some  very  marked  and  practical  advantages,  as  follows: 

1.  A  larger  number  of  pigs  at  farrowing  time. 

2.  Heavier,  stronger,  bigger-boned  new-born  pigs. 

3.  More  pigs  usually  saved  to  each  sow  up  to  weaning  time,  hence  more 
reach  the  market. 

4.  They  are  tried  mothers,  the  undesirable  brood  sows  being  naturally 
eliminated. 

5.  Less  high-priced  protein  feeds  are  needed  to  supplement  the  cheaper 
carbohydrates. 

6.  More  rough  feeds  may  be  used,  such  as  alfalfa  hay  and  pasture. 

7.  Matured   and  tried-out   sires   can   be   used  to   advantage;    this 
ofttimes  not  being  feasible  with  young  gilts  unless  a  breeding  crate  is 
used. 

8.  Immunized,  cholera-proof  sows  may  be  continuously  kept,  and  the 
expense  and  bother  of  the  annual  immunization  of  young  sows  thus 
eliminated. 

9.  Two  litters  a  year  are  raised  with  less  difficulty.     All  young  gilts 
cannot  raise  two  litters  successfully  the  first  year. 

10.  Less  loss  in  condition  during  the  suckling  period. 

11.  More  dependable  as  breeders. 

The  disadvantages  of  sows  older  than  gilts  are  not  to  be  overlooked, 
and  are  as  follows: 

1.  Require  more  feed. 

2.  More  house  room  necessary. 

3.  If  the  "one  litter  a  year"  practice  is  followed  these  sows  must  be 
carried  through  a  six  months'  unproductive  period,  which  is  relatively 
expensive. 

4.  Greater  capital  investment  imperative. 

5.  Greater  risk  involved  because  of  the  greater  capital  invested. 

6.  Swine  money  not  turned  so  often  because  the  sows  are  kept  longer 
and  not  sold  annually  as  are  the  gilts. 

7.  Docked  more  on  marketing,  ofttimes  twenty-five  cents  per  hun- 
dred, than  "trim-bellied"  gilts. 

8.  Gains  while  "fattening  off  for  market"  more  expensive. 

9.  Usually  need  an  older,  mature  boar,  because  the  younger  ones 
are  not  so  handily  used;  hence,  the  breeding  more  difficultly  managed. 

10.  Apt  to  become  overfat,  clumsy  and  awkward,  and  hence  overlie 
the  new-born  pigs.      This  tendency  to  overfatness  must    be    carefully 
guarded  against. 

11.  More  difficult,  generally  speaking,  to  manage. 

In  profitable  practice,  a  happy  combination  of  both  gilts  and  old 
sows  may  be  kept  to  good  advantage.     The  breeder  of  pure-bred  swine 


68  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

f 

obviously  may  well  keep  more  old  sows  proportionately  than  does  the 
market  man. 

In  the  selection  of  individual  sows  for  the  herd  it  is  well  that  they  show: 

1.  Trueness  to  the  particular  type  and  breed  wished,  having  a  desi- 
rable ancestry  and  being  preferably  from  a  prolific,  tested  family. 

2.  A  well-formed  udder  with  active  teats  and  no  blind  ones. 

3.  Feminine  characteristics  of  refinement. 

4.  Roominess  and  capacity. 

5.  A  kindly  disposition. 

6.  Good  breeding  record  as  manifested  in  their  offspring. 

7.  Absence  of  overfatness  and  flabbiness. 

8.  A  good,  healthy  constitution  free  from  vermin  and  diseases. 

The  boar  should  possess  most  of  these  general  requirements,  emphasis 
being  placed  upon  his  masculinity  as  indicated  in  the  well-developed 
crest,  shield,  tusks  and  general  ruggedness.  A  mature,  tried  boar  is  more 
acceptable  than  an  immature,  untried  one. 

Housing. — In  the  housing  of  swine  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon 
warmth,  dryness,  abundance  of  light  and  direct  sunlight,  shade,  ventila- 
tion, sanitation,  safety,  comfort,  convenience,  size,  durability,  low  first 
cost,  minimum  cost  of  maintenance  and  pleasing  appearance  of  the  struc- 
ture to  be  used.  This  applies  to  the  large  centralized  community  or  the 
small  movable  individual  type. 

The  selection  of  a  correct  site  for  the  location  of  the  hog  house  is  very 
important.  Emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  the  economy  of  labor  and 
time  in  management,  drainage,  exposure,  slope,  windbreaks,  nearness  to 
pasture  and  shade,  elevation,  prevention  of  odors  reaching  home  dwelling 
and  risk  from  disease  infection.  To  place  any  hog  house  in  an  undesirable, 
ill-adapted  place  is  to  invite  loss,  dissatisfaction  and  possible  failure. 

The  large  community  house  as  compared  with  the  small  movable 
one  has  some  advantages  in  that  the  time  and  labor  required  for  some 
operations  is  less;  durability  is  usually  greater;  lighting  from  direct  and 
diffuse  sunlight  better  arranged;  ventilation  made  more  simple  and 
systematic;  general  equipment  usually  less  and  more  compactly  arranged; 
close  attention  to  the  herd  easily  and  practically  possible;  herdsman 
experiences  minimum  of  exposure;  feed  storage,  water  supply  and  general 
rooms  may  be  conveniently  arranged;  sanitation  in  some  respects  may 
be  more  encouraged;  vermin  more  largely  eliminated;  site  selection  is 
simplified  because  only  one  site  is  needed;  the  heating  problem  is  compara- 
tively easy;  common  feeding  floor  and  water  wallow  may  be  more  handily 
arranged ;  danger  of  loss  less  than  with  large  number  of  houses  in  common 
yards;  provides  headquarters  for  the  swine  farm;  fire  and  other  risk  may 
be  minimized  through  masonry  construction;  a  number  of  swine  under 
one  cover  become  better  acquainted;  makes  possible  adjustable  pens; 
facilitates  collection  of  liquid  manure;  and  advertising  value  may  be 
greater. 


SWINE  69 


On  the  other  hand,  the  community  house  is  a  disadvantage  in  that 
location  is  not  easily  changed;  isolation  is  practically  impossible;  sanita- 
tion may  be  sometimes  discouraged;  construction  is  more  complex;  it  is 
not  so  practical  for  beginners;  the  first  cost  is  somewhat  high;  more  fencing 
is  required  to  provide  similar  range  conditions;  it  is  likely  to  be  used 
solely  for  a  farrowing  house  and  thus  decrease  serviceability;  and  fire 
and  other  hazardous  risks  may  be  greater  if  it  is  built  of  wood  and  is  in 
close  proximity  to  other  buildings. 

A  combination  of  the  two  types  of  houses,  i.  e.,  the  large  centralized 
or  community  one  supplemented  with  the  small  movable  one,  deserves 
favor  in  practice.  Each  type  has  its  own  peculiar  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages, whereas  the  two  together  counterbalance  each  other  so  .as  to 
make  a  very  complete  efficient  practical  combination  system. 

Feeds  for  Swine. — Feeding  swine  has  to  do  with  the  balancing  of 
the  grain  ration  to  make  it  most  efficient.  The  shortcomings  of  corn  as 
feed  for  swine  have  their  counterpart  in  other  grains  used  less  extensively 
in  pork  production,  namely,  barley,  wheat,  rye,  sorghum  seed,  Kaffir  corn 
and  milo  maize. 

The  predominating  deficiencies  of  corn  as  a  grain  for  growing  swine  are: 

1.  Low  in  Protein. — A  young  growing  pig  should  have  a  pound  of 
protein  with  every  three  to  four  pounds  of  carbohydrates.      Corn  has 
only   one   pound   of   protein   to    about    eight    and   one-half   pounds  of 
carbohydrates. 

2.  The  Quality  of  Protein  is  Only  Fair. — Corn  products  alone,  partly 
because  of  the  protein  content  being  of  low  quality,  are  inefficient  in  dry 
lot  feeding,  even  though  an  abundance  of  protein  be  supplied  as  in  the 
form  of  gluten  meal. 

3.  Lacking  in  Mineral  Elements. — Corn  is  particularly  low  in  cal- 
cium, which  comprises  40  per  cent  of  the  dry  ash  of  bone.     The  young 
pregnant  gilt  would  have  to  eat  something  like  thirty  pounds  of  corn  a 
day  in  order  to  get  enough  calcium  to  supply  the  growing  fcetus.     Common 
salt  and  calcium  and  potassium  phosphate  have  been  found  beneficial 
when  added  to  a  corn  diet.     The  deficiency  of  minerals  in  corn  has  been 
largely  responsible  for  the  widespread  general  use  of  condimental  material, 
such  as  wood-ashes,  charcoal,  bone  phosphate,  rock  phosphate,  cinders, 
slaked  coal  and  others  being  used  in  practical  hog  feeding. 

4.  Presents  an  Acid  Ash. — When  corn  is  high  in  protein  this  acidity 
is  especially  marked.     To  make  corn  more  productive  this  acidity  should 
be  counteracted.     This  is  made  possible  by  the  judicious  use  of  efficient 
and  proper  supplements. 

The  most  acceptable,  practical  supplements  to  corn  and  the  otLer 
similar  starchy  grains  may  be  briefly  enumerated  as  follows:  skimmed 
milk,  buttermilk,  tankage,  blood  meal,  linseed  oil  meal,  cottonseed  meal, 
gluten  meal,  wheat  middlings,  Canada  field  peas,  soy  beans,  alfalfa  and 
clover  hay. 


70  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

The  production  of  pastures  is  an  economical  proposition  and  is  to  be 
encouraged  on  every  American  as  well  as  Canadian  swine  farm  in  order 
to  obviate  the  necessity  of  purchasing  high-priced  protein  concentrates. 
The  most  profitable  supplemental  pastures  in  the  corn  belt  in  the  order 
of  merit  are:  alfalfa,  rape,  red  clover,  blue  grass  and  sweet  clover  of  the 
first  year's  growth.  In  the  South  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  Spanish  peanuts 
and  Lespedeza  clover  may  be  added,  inasmuch  as  these  plants  give  excellent 
success  in  warm  climates  and  on  soils  that  are  sandy  and  relatively  unpro- 
ductive as  compared  to  the  corn  belt  soils  of  Iowa  and  Illinois. 

Swine  feeding  and  dairying,  along  with  judicious  use  of  green  forages 
in  a  good  corn,  barley  or  other  similar  grain  country,  is  a  most  excellent 
swine-farming  proposition.  If  alfalfa  can  be  raised,  so  much  the  better. 

Preparation  of  Feeds. — Hard,  tough,  fibrous-shelled  seeds  such  as 
Kaffir  corn,  sorghum,  milo  maize  and  millet  will  be  much  more  efficient 
if  fed  in  the  ground  condition.  If  grinding  is  impossible,  soaking  is  the 
next  best  possible  procedure. 

Wheat,  rye  and  barley  likewise  give  better  results  when  ground,  and 
can  also  be  soaked  as  an  alternative.  Some  experiments  show  as  much 
as  20  per  cent  increase  in  the  efficiency  of  wheat  through  the  grinding 
as  compared  to  feeding  the  grain  dry  and  whole. 

The  general  herd,  young  pigs  and  sows  on  a  maintenance  ration  do 
better  on  ear  corn  than  any  other  form.  However,  fattening  sows  and 
heavy  fat  hogs  in  the  final  stages  of  fattening  make  more  economical  gains 
on  the  soaked  shelled  grain.  If  any  preparation  should  be  used  other 
than  dry  ear,  it  should  be  shelled  soaked  corn  rather  than  the  ground 
grain  dry  or  soaked. 

Corn-and-cob  meal  has  little  to  commend  it  to  any  class  of  swine 
except  possibly  the  brood  sows  on  maintenance,  and  even  with  these  the 
ear  corn  is  the  most  profitable. 

Hays,  such  as  ground  alfalfa,  may  be  ground  ofttimes  in  order  to 
facilitate  their  mixture  with  the  grain  rations  and  to  encourage  their 
consumption. 

Wetting  and  cooking  of  feeds  is  not  ordinarily  profitable,  although 
to  produce  rapid  gains  these  procedures  are  sometimes  permissible,  this 
being  especially  true  in  the  production  and  finishing  of  show  stock. 

Hand  vs.  Self-Feeding. — Better  results  will  be  secured  by  the  self- 
feed  method  than  by  hand-feeding  twice  daily.  However,  feeding  three 
times  a  day  is  the  most  efficient,  considering  rapidity  of  gains  and  economy 
in  feed  required  for  100  pounds  of  gain.  Under  our  ordinary  high-priced 
labor  conditions,  thrice  a  day  is  not  enough  better  to  excel  self-feeding. 

The  " Free-Choice"  scheme  of  feeding  consists  of  allowing  acceptable 
feeds  before  swine  in  such  a  manner  that  they  can  balance  their  own 
rations.  In  1914  a  group  of  pigs  fed  at  the  Iowa  station  according  to 
this  scheme,  receiving  shelled  corn,  linseed  oil  meal,  oats  and  meat  meal 
(or  tankage),  limestone,  charcoal  and  salt  in  separate  feeds,  weighed  316 


SWINE 


71 


pounds  when  8  months  7  days  old.  They  did  as  well  as  if  they  had  been 
fed  according  to  accepted  feeding  standards.  Tests  now  in  progress  (1915) 
at  the  Iowa  station  indicate  that  pigs  can  feed  themselves  better  than  a 
trained  animal  husbandman  can  feed  them  if  he  follows  the  customary 
feeding  standards. 

When  pigs  are  allowed  starchy  corn  and  high-protein  meat  meal 
(tankage)  in  separate  feeders,  this  feed  being  kept  before  them  from  wean- 
ing time  until  they  reach  a  weight  of  300  pounds,  they  will  eat  of  these 
two  dry  lot  fed  feeds  approximately  as  follows: 


Approximate 
Age,  days. 

Approximate 
Weight, 
pounds. 

Pounds  60  Per  Cent 
Protein  Meat  Meal 
(Tankage)       Eaten 
with     Every    100 
Pounds  Corn. 

Pounds  Protein 
Eaten  with 
Every  100 
Pounds  Starches. 

\Veanling 

60 

35 

20 

3  38 

Shote 

120 

100 

15 

3  84 

Fattening  hog 

180 

210 

8 

4  79 

Fat  marketable  hog 

240 

300 

1 

6.50 

The  self-feeding  method  is  excellent  in  dry  lot  feeding,  on  pastures 
and  where  skim  milk  or  buttermilk  is  used. 

Feed  for  the  Brood  Sows. — The  brood  sow  should  have  good  feed  in 
order  to  produce  strong,  healthy  pigs.  Skim  milk,  tankage,  alfalfa  pas- 
ture, etc.,  combined  with  corn  or  other  grains,  often  increase  the  litters 
as  much  as  one  pig  over  corn  alone. 

To  demonstrate  the  advantage  of  supplementing  the  starchy  grain 
feeds  such  as  corn  with  the  proper  protein  supplement,  the  resulting  average 
weight  and  strength  of  the  pigs  secured  is  given  for  a  few  typical  rations: 


Ration  Fed.* 

Average  Weight 
per  Pig, 
pounds. 

Strong  Pigs, 
per  cent. 

Cost  of 
New-born  Pigs, 
cents. 

Corn  only     

1.74 

68 

41 

Corn  plus  4  per  cent  tankage  

2.01 

92 

18 

Corn  plus  16  per  cent  tankage  

2.23 

93 

22 

Corn  plus  alfalfa  in  rack  

2.12 

98 

31 

These  gilts  were  charged  at  the  rate  of  50  cents  a  bushel  for  shelled 
corn,  $2.50  for  meat  meal  and  $15  a  ton  for  the  alfalfa  hay;  yet  in  spite  of 
the  comparative  high  cost  of  the  supplements,  the  pigs  produced  were  not 
only  cheaper  but  much  better  pigs  were  secured,  the  animals  being  much 
larger  and  stronger  than  where  corn  only  was  fed. 


*  Animal  Husbandry  Section — Iowa  Experiment  Station  Results. 


72  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

The  unborn  pig  must  be  well  fed  indirectly  through  its  host  the  brood 
sow  if  a  strong,  vigorous,  active  pig  carrying  big  bone  and  strong  muscle 
at  the  time  of  farrow  is  desired. 

In  general,  it  is  well  to  emphasize  in  brood  sow  management : 

A.  Acceptable  balanced  feeds  in  sufficient  quantity. 

B.  Maximum  growth  without  excessive  fattening. 

C.  Abundant    exercise,    especially   the   latter   two    months    of 

gestation. 

D.  Riddance  of  lice  and  worms. 

E.  Moderate  laxativeness,  because  constipation  is  a  menace. 

F.  Gentleness  in  handling  the  herd. 

The  suckling  sow  and  litter  should  be  fed  better  than  any  other  class 
of  swine.  The  demand  for  growing  feeds  by  both  the  sow  and  pigs  at 
this  time  is  great.  Such  feeds  as  corn,  barley,  skim  milk,  buttermilk,  tank- 
age, wheat  middlings,  alfalfa,  rape,  clover,  blue  grass  and  other  pastures, 
and  similar  feeds  equally  as  good  are  to  be  particularly  commended. 

Feeding  the  Pigs. — From  time  of  weaning  to  maturity  pigs  should 
have  plenty  of  suitable  forage.  Nothing  is  better  than  pastures  of  clover, 
alfalfa,  rape,  etc.  Here  they  may  be  given  a  full  or  limited  ration,  depend- 
ing on  circumstances. 

If  the  usually  better  early  fall  markets  are  the  goal,  full-feeding  will 
be  in  order;  whereas  if  the  later  but  somewhat  lower  markets  are  most 
acceptable,  the  grain  ration  can  be  limited.  Ordinarily,  it  is  not  a  paying 
proposition  to  feed  less  than  three  pounds  of  grain  with  every  100  pounds 
of  pig  daily.  A  lesser  amount,  especially  if  the  pasture  be  poor,  will  cause 
the  pigs  to  become  stunted. 

The  fall  pigs  which  are  raised  in  winter  dry  lot  must  be  fed  a  relatively 
high-priced  ration;  in  other  words,  one  high  in  protein.  The  fall  pigs 
need  warm  shelter,  and  it  is  best  to  feed  them  inside  the  shelter.  They 
must  be  protected  from  the  cold  winds,  snows,  hails,  and  general  wintry 
conditions,  while  the  spring  pig  should  be  protected  from  the  hot  sun  and 
the  flies.  The  fall  pig  lives  at  a  time  when  attacks  from  worms  are  at 
low  ebb  and  are  not  readily  passed  from  one  host  to  another. 

The  "hogging-down''  of  corn  deserves  much  emphasis.  It  is  prac- 
ticed profitably  in  all  of  the  corn  belt  states.  It  may  be  likened  to  dry 
lot  feeding  if  the  field  is  clean  and  free  from  weeds,  and  supplemental  pro- 
tein feeds  should  be  supplied  accordingly.  It  is  well  to  have  an  alfalfa, 
rape  or  similar  pasture  field  adjoining  in  order  to  supply  this  protein 
at  the  lowest  cost. 

Rape,  winter  rye  or  winter  wheat  in  the  northern  corn  belt  may  be 
sown  in  the  corn  at  the  last  cultivation  or  shortly  thereafter  with  excel- 
lent success;  in  the  more  southern  districts  cowpeas  and  soy  beans 
may  be  included  with  profit. 

Successful  swine  rations  for  general  American  conditions,  and  suitable 


SWINE 


73 


for  the  various  sizes,  ages  and  classes  of  hogs  are  suggested  in  a  ready 
reference  table  presented  herewith: 


The  Swine  to  be  Fed. 


I.  Growing  and  Fattening  for  Market. 

1.  Suckling  pigs  (a  creep)  5-40  pounds. .  25 

2.  Weanling  pigs,  30-100  pounds 25-18 

3.  Shoats,  100-175  pounds 18-10 

4.  Hogs,  175-250  pounds 10-4 

5.  Fat  Hogs,  250-350  pounds 4-1 

II.  Fattening  Sows  for  Market. 

1.  Yearlings  (gilts)  after  weaning. 

A.  In  poor  condition,  run-down 11-8 

B.  In  good  condition,  thrifty 9-5 

2.  Two  years  or  older. 

A.  In  poor  condition,  run-down 6-4 

B.  In  good  condition,  thrifty 2-0 

III.  Stags,  Fattening. 

A.  Young 9-4 

B.  Old 5-0 

IV.  Carrying  Sows,  Breeding. 

1.  Breeding  swine,  flushing. 

A.  Gilts. 14 

B.  Yearlings  and  older 11 

2.  During  pregnancy. 

A.  Gilts 14-10 

B.  Yearlings  and  older 10-6 

V.  Suckling  Sows. 

A.  With  large  litters - 25-18 

B.  With  small  litters. .  20-8 


Pounds  of  Tankage*  (60  per  cent  Protein)  to  be 

Fed  along  with  every  100  Pounds  of  Corn  to 

Swine  of  Various  Classes  in 


Dry  Lot. 


Low-Protein 
Pasture,  f 


25- 

23-16 

16-9 

9-4 

4-1 


11-8 
8-5 

6-4 
2-0 


9-4 
5-0 


14 
11 

10-7 
6-4 


25-18 
20-8 


High-Protein 
Pasture.  J 


20-12 

12-5 

5-2 

2-2 

0 


5-0 
0 

4-0 
0 


10 


0-5 
0-4 


10 
3-5 


*  If  corn  is  not  available,  it  may  be  substituted  pound  for  pound  in  these  proportions  with  barley, 
wheat,  rye,  sorghum  seed,  Kaffir  corn,  milp  maize,  or  feterita,  or  a  combination  of  any  of  these.  If  60 
per  cent  protein  tankage  is  not  available,  linseed  oil  meal  or  soy  bean  meal  may  be  substituted,  2  to  2| 
times  as  much  being  used.  For  example,  the  suggested  dry  lot  ration  for  growing  and  fattening  shoats 
is  "corn  100,  tankage  18  to  10;"  now  substitute  oil  meal  2  times  as  much  and  we  have  corn  100,  linseed 
oil  meal  36  to  20.  To  substitute  wheat  middlings,  allow  17  times  as  much,  skim  or  buttermilk  20  times, 
and  blood  meal  60  per  cent  as  much,  or  almost  two-fifths  less.  Blood  meal  runs  about  85  per  cent  protein 
and  but  little  is  required,  but  blood  meal  is  not  so  good  a  supplement  as  tankage,  everything  considered. 

f  Low-Protein  Pastures. — Dry,  hard,  fibrous  blue  grass;  sorghum;  feterita;  millet;  Sudan  grass; 
milo  maize;  timothy  when  over  four  inches  high;  rye  or  wheat  over  eight  inches;  or  oats  and  barley 
over  five  inches,  or  beginning  a  couple  of  weeks  before  beginning  to  joint;  and  sweet  clover  of  second 
year's  growth  after  two  feet  high. 

t  High-Protein  Pastures. — Alfalfa;  rape,  Dwarf  Essex;  medium  red,  mammoth,  alsike,  and  white 
and  other  clovers;  young,  tender,  sweet  clover,  first  year's  growth;  quite  early,  tender,  new  coming 
timothy,  rye  or  wheat;  short,  "shooting,"  tender,  green,  succulent  blue  grass,  cowpeas;  and  soy  beans. 


74  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

REFERENCES 

"Productive  Swine  Husbandry."     Day. 

"Swine  in  America."     Coburn. 

"Swine."     Dietrich. 

"Forty  Years'  Experience  as  a  Practical  Hog  Man."     Lovejoy. 

"The  Hog  Book."     Dawson. 

Alabama  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  185.     "Dipping  Vat  for  Hogs  and  Dips;"  "Hog  Worms, 

Lice  and  Mange;"  "Hog  Lot,  Houses  and  Water  Supply." 
Kentucky  Expt.  Station  Circular  4.  "Mai-Nutrition  of  Hogs." 
Nebraska  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  147.  "Pork  Production." 

Ohio  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  268.     "Fattening  Swine  with  Substitutes  for  Corn." 
South  Dakota  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  157.     "Rape  Pasture  for  Pigs  in  Cornfield." 
Wyoming  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  107.     "Swine  Feeding." 
Canadian  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  225.     "Swine." 
Fanners'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

411.     "Feeding  Hogs  in  the  South." 

438.     "Hog  Houses." 


CHAPTER  7 
SHEEP  AND  GOATS 

BY  T.  C.  STONE 
Instructor  in  Animal  Husbandry,  Ohio  State  University 

Early  Importance  of  Sheep. — There  is  evidence  that  sheep  were  under 
domestication  in  Europe  in  prehistoric  times.  The  primitive  man  used  the 
skin  for  clothing  and  the  meat  and  milk  for  food.  As  man  has  advanced 
in  civilization,  sheep  farming  has  become  an  important  branch  of  agricul- 


A  TYPICAL  COTSWOLD  EWE.' 

ture.  Sheep  and  their  wool  were  very  early  acknowledged  to  be  the  founda- 
tion of  the  national  prosperity  and  the  wealth  of  Great  Britain  and  other 
European  countries.  The  more  recent  introduction  of  silk  manufactures 
and  the  establishment  of  the  cotton  trade  have  lessened  the  demand  for 
woolen  goods;  still,  the  sheep  and  its  fleece  are  of  great  importance. 


i  Courtesy  of  The  Field,  New  York  City. 


75 


76  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

The  Sheep  of  Spain. — The  Spanish  Merino,  the  only  type  of  sheep  in 
Spain,  are  noted  for:  (1)  the  production  of  a  very  fine  wool,  (2)  hardiness 
and  ability  to  travel,  and  (3)  the  disposition  to  stay  close  together  when 
feeding,  resting  and  traveling.  These  characteristics  have  had  an  impor- 
tant influence  on  their  later  history. 

The  Sheep  of  England. — In  England  were  developed  several  types  of 
sheep,  and  each  type  or  breed  was  adapted  to  a  certain  locality.  These 
breeds  were  quite  unlike  in  fleece.  The  wool  found  favor  on  the  market 
because  of  its  variety  in  length  and  quality,  which  made  it  adaptable  to 


A  TYPICAL  LINCOLN  EwE.1 

different  uses.  The  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  in  its  show 
catalogue  recognizes  twenty-five  breeds.  These  were  all  developed  on  the 
British  Isles.  Some  were  developed  in  the  lowlands,  some  in  the  hills  and 
others  in  the  midlands.  They  were  developed  principally  for  meat;  fresh 
meat  in  England,  with  its  great  population,  being  of  greater  consequence 
than  wool.  The  various  breeds  were  divided  into  four  classes,  namely,  the 
long- wool  breeds,  the  middle-wool  breeds,  the  highlanders  or  mountain 
breeds  and  the  upland  breeds. 

Breeds  of  Sheep. — Two  distinct  types  of  sheep  have  been  produced, 
namely,  the  mutton  and  wool  types.     The  former  are  valued  chiefly  on 

i  Courtesy  of  The  Field,  New  York  City. 


SHEEP    AND    GOATS 


account  of  their  ability  to  make  mutton  economically,  although  the  wool- 
producing  ability  of  the  mutton  sheep  constitutes  no  small  part  of  their 
value  to  the  farmer.  The  wool  type,  however,  is  raised  mainly  for  the  wool 
it  produces. 

In  conformation,  the  mutton  sheep  are  compact,  with  a  short  head  and 
neck,  a  broad,  level  back,  a  full  leg  of  mutton,  a  deep  body  and  short  legs. 
The  wool  ranges  in  length  from  2J  inches  in  the  middle-wools  to  10  inches 
in  the  long- wools.  The  fleece  does  not  cover  the  body  so  compactly  as 
does  the  fleece  of  the  fine-wool  sheep.  The  medium-wool  breeds  greatly 


A  TYPICAL  SHROPSHIRE.1 

excel  the  long-wools  in  this  respect.  The  fleece  of  the  medium-wool  breeds 
is  much  less  fine  in  quality  and  has  much  less  yolk  or  oil  in  it  than  does  the 
fleece  of  the  Merino  sheep. 

LONG- WOOL  BREEDS 

Leicester. — Very  large  sheep,  wool  6  inches  long  at  12  months,  being 
bright  and  lustrous;  face  and  legs  white;  no  wool  on  head.  Weight  of 
mature  rams  ranges  from  225  to  250  pounds;  ewes  from  175  to  200  pounds. 

Cotswold. — Wool  8  inches  long  at  12  months;  pronounced  tuft  of  wool 
on  forehead;  face  and  legs  white.  Rams  weigh  from  250  to  275  pounds; 
ewes  from  200  to  225  pounds. 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Field,  New  York  City. 
89 


78  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

Lincoln. — No  breed  furnishes  so  long  a  fleece  as  the  Lincoln.  It 
ranges  from  8  to  12  inches;  tuft  of  wool  on  forehead.  Rams  weigh  about 
385  pounds;  ewes  about  275  pounds. 

MEDIUM-WOOL  BREEDS 

Southdown. — They  are  smallest  of  the  middle-wools,  very  low-set  and 
compact,  with  steel-gray  or  mouse-brown  markings  on  face  and  legs. 
Fleece  is  2f  inches  long  at  12  months.  Rams  weigh  from  185  to  200  pounds ; 


A  TYPICAL  CHEVIOT.* 

ewes  from  125  to  140  pounds.  Criticised  for  lack  of  wool  production  and 
insufficient  size.  Much  improvement  has  been  due  to  this  breed. 

Shropshire. — They  are  stylish  sheep  with  pronounced  extension  of 
wool  over  face  and  legs;  color  marking  is  a  deep,  soft  brown.  Wool  3 
inches  long  at  12  months.  Rams  weigh  about  225  pounds;  ewes  from  140 
to  160  pounds.  Rank  high  as  a  dual  purpose  breed. 

Oxfords. — They  resemble  the  Shropshire,  but  are  larger  and  do  not 
have  as  great  wool  extension  over  face  and  legs.  Lighter  brown  is  the  color 
marking,  and  usually  are  more  upstanding.  Wool  is  4  inches  long  at  12 

1  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


SHEEP    AND     GOATS 


79 


months.  Heavier  than  Southdowns  and  Shropshires,  equal  to  Hampshires. 
Hams  weigh  from  275  to  300  pounds;  ewes  about  175  to  200  pounds.  They 
give  size  and  weight  when  crossed  on  short-wools  and  quality  and  better 
mutton  when  crossed  on  the  long-wooled  breeds. 

Hampshires. — They  have  darker  color  markings  than  the  Oxfords, 
and  a  very  pronounced  Roman  nose.  Wool  is  2J  inches  long  at  12  months. 
Very  early  maturing  sheep. 

Dorset  Horn. — Have  white  color  markings;   very  little  wool  on  face 


, 


A  TYPICAL  MERINO.  1 

and  legs  and  it  does  not  extend  well  over  lower  parts  of  the  body.  Both 
ewes  and  rams  have  horns.  Wool  at  12  months  is  3  inches  long.  Weight 
of  rams  from  250  to  275  pounds;  ewes  175  to  185  pounds.  A  mutton  breed 
of  merit;  valued  as  early  lamb  raisers. 

Cheviot. — They  are  very  alert,  stylish  sheep  with  white  markings. 
Face  and  legs  are  free  from  wool.  Wool  is  4  inches  long.  Rams  weigh 
from  200  to  225  pounds;  ewes  from  125  to  140  pounds.  It  is  a  very  hardy 
breed  and  individuals  graze  independently  of  each  other. 

Fine- Wool  or  Merino  Sheep. — This  type  is  the  result  of  efforts  to 

1  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


80 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


produce  a  fleece  of  finest  quality.  In  developing  this  type  some  breeders 
did  not  overlook  the  mutton  qualities,  while  others  did.  The  Spanish 
Merino  was  the  foundation  of  the  three  classes  of  Merinos  as  they  exist 
today.  The  three  classes  are  A,  B  and  C.  This  classification  is  based  on 
differences  in  conformation,  character  of  fleece,  and  number  and  disposition 
of  wrinkles  or  folds  on  the  sheep. 

The  Merino  blood  must  predominate  on  our  western  ranges  because  of 
the  gregarious  nature  of  this  breed.  They  have  great  constitution  and 
vigor  and  are  much  less  susceptible  to  parasitic  trouble  than  the  breeds  of 
the  mutton  type.  They  can  be  kept  in  smaller  quarters  and  the  ewes  do 
not  need  as  much  care  at  lambing  time  as  ewes  of  the  mutton  breeds.  They 
are  lacking  greatly  in  mutton  qualities,  and  there  is  a  strong  demand  for 


A  TYPICAL  FLOCK  OF  SHEEP  IN 


the  dual  purpose  animal.  The  Merino  will  not  be  supplanted,  but  as  the 
demand  for  mutton  becomes  stronger,  they  will  no  doubt  be  supplemented 
very  largely  by  the  mutton  breeds. 

Establishing  a  Flock.  —  Sheep  may  be  kept  profitably  on  either  high 
or  low-priced  land.  On  the  high-priced  lands  of  England  sheep  are  found 
in  great  numbers  and  they  would  certainly  not  be  kept  if  they  were  not 
profitable.  Sheep  do  best  on  slightly  rolling  land  where  dry  footing  pre- 
vails. They  get  more  sustenance  and  at  the  same  time  do  the  land  more 
good  than  any  other  class  of  livestock.  The  manure  from  sheep  contains 
more  fertilizing  value  per  ton  than  any  other  kind  of  farm  manure  with 
the  exception  of  poultry. 


i  Courtesy  of  The   Macmillan  Company,   N.   Y. 
ment,"  by  Agee. 


From  "Crops  and  Methods  for   Soil  Improve- 


rS KEEP    AND    GOATS  81 

Very  little  capital  is  needed  to  start  a  flock  of  sheep.  They  need  not 
be  housed  in  expensive  buildings.  Nature  has  fitted  them  to  endure  cold 
weather.  A  small  flock  requires  very  little  labor,  especially  during  the 
busy  summer.  These  advantages,  along  with  the  fact  that  sheep  destroy 
weeds,  thereby  helping  to  beautify  the  farm,  make  the  sheep  a  valuable 
asset  to  the  American  farmer.  These  advantages  are  not  mentioned  with 
the  view  of  urging  the  farmer  to  give  up  other  classes  of  farm  animals, 
but  to  remind  him  of  the  advantage  of  supplementing  his  stock  with  a 
small  flock  of,  say,  forty  ewes  or  even  less. 

Essentials  to  Success. — One  should  choose  the  breed  best  adapted 
to  local  conditions,  especially  the  climate  and  market.  There  is  no  best 
breed  for  all  conditions.  It  is  best  that  a  man  gain  his  experience  with 
grade  stuff.  One  may  purchase  either  Merino  or  mutton  breeds  and  then 
grade  them  up  by  using  a  pure-bred  ram.  The  latter  is  of  great  importance. 
A  ram  having  a  good  pedigree  and  good  individuality  should  be  selected. 
He  should  be  purchased  from  a  reliable  breeder  and  the  stockman  should 
not  hesitate  to  pay  a  good  price  for  a  desirable  ram.  The  ram  should 
possess  good  breed  type  and  be  masculine.  An  effeminate  ram  should 
have  no  place  in  a  flock.  Masculinity  is  indicated  by  a  short,  broad  head, 
large,  broad  nostrils,  ruggedness  in  appearance  and  a  lack  of  too  great 
refinement  throughout.  Rams  should  have  a  good  conformation,  and 
those  which  have  been  very  highly  fitted  should  be  avoided,  as  they  often 
prove  non-breeders.  There  are  only  a  few  instances  where  it  would  be 
permissible  to  use  a  ram  lamb  to  head  the  flock.  This  is  done  more  often 
in  the  case  of  the  Hampshire  breed  than  others.  Older  rams  usually  make 
the  best  breeders.  A  ram  of  the  middle-wool  breeds  is  sufficiently  devel- 
oped and  fit  for  service  at  the  age  of  1J/2  years. 

Only  ewes  that  are  sound  in  their  mouths  and  udders,  and  that  possess 
feminine  characteristics  and  good  general  conformation  should  be  pur- 
chased. It  must  be  remembered  that  the  ewes  are  half  the  flock. 

One  should  not  make  the  mistake,  after  establishing  a  flock,  of  allow- 
ing the  sheep  to  care  for  themselves.  Suitable  but  inexpensive  shelter 
and  plenty  of  forage  should  be  provided  and  plenty  of  salt  and  water 
should  be  kept  before  them.  It  is  necessary  to  be  on  the  lookout  for 
internal  parasites,  especially  in  lambs,  during  the  summer  months. 

The  Breeding  Season. — The  breeding  season  of  the  year  in  this 
country  commences  in  September  or  just  as  soon  as  the  cool  nights  begin. 
The  heat  periods  of  the  ewes  last  from  one  to  two  days  and  normally 
appear  at  intervals  of  16  days.  The  Dorset  Horn  and  Tunis  will  breed 
at  any  time. 

Period  of  Gestation. — The  usual  period  is  146  days.  Ewes,  however, 
are  very  irregular  about  bringing  forth  their  young.  Shepherds  in  the 
old  country  figure  on  140  days.  The  period  of  gestation  is  often  longer 
for  Rambouillets  than  for  other  breeds. 

Care  of  Ram  During  Breeding  Season. — Not  more  than  40  ewes  should 


i  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  1 

(82) 


SHEEP    AND     GOATS  83 

be  allowed  to  one  ram.  The  last  born  lambs  are  often  weaker  than  those 
born  earlier  in  the  season.  This  indicates  that  it  is  not  advisable  to 
breed  the  ram  to  too  many  ewes.  In  a  large  flock,  the  ram  should  be  put 
with  the  ewes  for  an  hour  at  the  end  of  each  day.  In  a  small  flock,  he  may 
be  allowed  to  run  with  the  ewes  all  the  time.  Where  hand  coupling  is 
not  practiced,  one  should  paint  the  brisket  between  the  ram's  fore-leg  with 
paint.  Red  lead  and  linseed  oil  make  a  desirable  paint  for  this  purpose. 
This  mark  wrill  indicate  that  the  ewes  have  been  bred.  After  16  days 
the  ram  may  be  painted  another  color.  By  this  means  the  breeder  may 
know  whether  the  ewes  are  returning.  The  ram  should  be  fed  liberally 
during  the  breeding  season,  but  not  too  well.  A  mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  oats,  bran  and  oil-cake,  say  one  pint,  both  mornings  and  evenings,  will 
prove  a  good  ration. 

Winter  Care  of  Ewes. — A  lamb  gets  its  start  on  the  right  or  wrong 
way  before  it  is  born.  The  pregnant  ewes  should  be  sufficiently  fed,  but 
not  overfed  during  winter.  They  should  be  given  plenty  of  exercise;  the 
more  they  get,  the  healthier  the  lamb  crop  will  be.  The  feeding  of  too 
much  grain  just  previous  to  lambing  time  should  be  avoided.  Bran,  oats, 
oil  meal  and  clover  make  an  ideal  ration  for  the  breeding  ewe.  Silage  and 
roots  are  good  succulent  feeds,  but  must  be  fed  in  small  quantities  and 
must  be  of  good  quality. 

Care  of  Young  Lambs. — Lambs  should  be  weaned  when  3}^  to  4 
months  old,  and  put  on  fresh  pasture.  The  secret  of  successful  and  profit- 
able lamb  raising  is  to  keep  them  growing  and  in  good  condition  from 
birth  to  maturity.  Lambs  should  be  given  grain  as  soon  as  they  can 
thoroughly  digest  it.  In  order  that  they  may  eat  at  will,  it  is  necessary 
to  build  creeps  for  them.  The  feeds  given  and  the  amount  will  depend 
largely  on  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  being  prepared.  These  being 
fitted  for  the  market  should  be  fed  liberally  with  grain  until  they  are  of 
market  age.  Their  ration  may  consist  almost  wholly  of  corn.  A  good 
grain  ration  for  lambs  just  beginning  to  eat  is  ground  corn,  one  part; 
crushed  oats,  one  part;  linseed  oil  meal,  one  part;  and  wheat  bran, 
two  parts. 

All  lambs  should  be  docked  and  all  males  intended  for  the  open  market 
should  be  castrated.  Lambs  that  are  not  castrated  often  sell  for  at  least 
$1.50  per  100  pounds  less  than  castrated  lambs.  This  does  not  take  into 
consideration  the  loss  of  flesh  due  to  activity  of  ram  lambs.  The  lamb 
that  is  not  docked  gets  filthy  around  the  dock  and  presents  a  poor  appear- 
ance on  the  market.  They  may  be  docked  and  castrated  when  about 
two  weeks  old.  It  is  much  more  convenient  to  do  both  at  the  same  time, 
and  no  evil  results  will  follow  if  the  operations  are  performed  in  the  right 
way. 

Marketing  the  Lambs. — It  is  usually  best  to  market  the  lambs  at 
weaning  time.  This  will  occur  about  July  1st.  There  is  great  demand 
for  lambs  weighing  from  65  to  70  pounds.  They  furnish  a  superior  prod- 


84  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

uct  for  the  consumer  and  make  very  economical  gains  for  the  producer. 
There  are  other  reasons  for  marketing  lambs  at  this  time.  First,  lambs 
gain  very  little  during  hot  summer  months;  second,  there  is  risk  of  losing 
them  through  the  internal  parasites;  third,  one  avoids  heaviest  run  of 
western  lambs;  and  lastly,  one  gets  the  use  of  his  money  earlier. 

Shearing  the  Flock. — Time  of  shearing  depends  on  the  weather,  the 
season  and  the  locality  and  equipment.  It  is  advisable  to  shear  as  soon 
as  warm  weather  begins  in  the  spring.  Late  shearing  is  unadvisable,  as 
the  sheep  will  lose  in  weight  if  compelled  to  carry  heavy  fleeces.  They 


AN  ANGORA  BucK.1 

are  also  liable  to  lose  some  of  their  wool  during  the  later  months.  Well- 
fed  ewes  with  comfortable  sheds  may  be  sheared  fairly  early.  They  will 
not  suffer  if  the  days  should  become  a  little  cool.  Wethers  fed  under 
the  same  conditions  may  often  be  sheared  as  early  as  March.  They  will 
gain  faster  when  fleeces  are  removed.  Care  should  be  exercised  to  see 
that  they  do  not  overeat  at  this  time. 

Both  hand  shearing  and  machine  shearing  are  practiced. 

Dipping  the  Flock. — All  sheep  should  be  dipped  for  three  reasons. 
First,  to  promote  healthy  condition  of  the  skin;  second,  as  a  remedy  for 
scabies  in  sheep;  third,  to  kill  the  lice  and  ticks. 

*  From  Farmers'  Bulletin  573,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


SHEEP    AND    GOATS  85 

The  time  for  dipping  depends  upon  the  time  of  shearing.  It  is  best 
to  dip  five  or  six  days  after  shearing.  The  ticks  and  lice  leave  the  shorn 
ewes  and  go  to  a  more  sheltered  place  on  the  bodies  of  the  young  lambs. 
If  one  delays  dipping  for  any  length  of  time  after  shearing,  the  lambs  will 
suffer  a  great  deal  with  these  pests.  A  second  dipping  should  take  place 
during  the  fall. 

Any  of  the  recommended  coal  tar  dips  may  be  used.  In  using  these, 
one  should  see  that  they  have  the  approval  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture and  should  follow  the  directions  carefully. 

A  flock  thus  handled  will  afford  the  owner  much  pleasure  and  profit 
for  capital  and  labor  invested.  The  earnings  from  sheep  will  compare 
very  favorably  with  those  of  any  of  our  domestic  animals. 

GOATS 

Goats  are  very  valuable  as  a  renovator  of  brush  lands.  They  are 
not  naturally  grazing  animals,  but  rather  browsers.  In  some  states,  the 
cost  of  clearing  large  tracts  of  land  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  pasturing 
with  flocks  of  goats. 

Besides  this,  many  goats,  especially  the  representatives  of  the  breeds 
of  milch  goats,  are  noted  as  milk  producers.  They  have  held  a  recognized 
place  as  such  for  a  great  many  years  among  the  poorer  people  of  the  world. 
In  some  countries  varieties  of  goats  are  bred  especially  for  their  milk- 
producing  qualities. 

In  this  country,  the  Angora  goat  and  the  common  goats  give  milk, 
but  milking  families  have  not  been  produced. 

The  Angora  goat  yields  a  fleece  which  is  valued  highly  on  the  market. 
It  is  commercially  known  as  mohair.  It  is  coarser  than  fine  wool,  but 
longer  and  stronger. 

When  sold  on  the  market,  goats  bring  a  lower  price  than  sheep.  The 
mutton  from  goats  is  not  considered  nearly  as  good  as  mutton  from  sheep. 

Angora  and  common  goats  are  found  in  almost  every  state  in  this 
country  .  They  seem  to  do  well  under  a  wide  range  of  climatic  conditions. 
A  dry  climate,  however,  seems  most  favorable  for  them. 

REFERENCES 

"Sheep  Farming."     Craig  and  Marshall. 
"Sheep  Farming  in  America."     Wing. 
''  Productive  Sheep  Husbandry."     Coffey. 
"Sheep  Farming."     Kleinheinz. 
"Sheep  Feeding  and  Farm  Management."     Doane. 
"  The  Winter  Lamb."     Miller  and  Wing. 
"Angora  Goat  Raising  and  Milch  Goats."     Thompson. 
Nebraska  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  153.     "Fattening  Lambs." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  68.     "Information 

Concerning  the  Milch   Goat." 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

573.     "The  Angora  Goat." 

576.     "Breeds  of  Sheep  for  the  Farm." 

652.    "The  Sheep  Killing  Dog." 


CHAPTER    3 

THE  FARM  FLOCK  (POULTRY) 

BY  M.  C.  KILPATRICK 
Instructor  in  Poultry  Husbandry,  Ohio  State  University 

Improved  methods  of  production  and  the  establishment  of  large 
specialized  poultry  farms  have  greatly  increased  the  supply  of  poultry  and 
eggs  during  recent  years.  The  demand  for  these  products,  however,  has 
been  increasing  even  more  rapidly  than  the  supply.  This  increasing  demand 
is  due  both  to  the  rapid  increase  of  the  consuming  population  and  to  a 
growing  preference  for  these  products  as  food.  The  increase  in  the  demand 
for  eggs  is  especially  marked,  due  largely  to  the  increased  price  of  meats 
and  the  fact  that  modern  transportation  facilities,  storage  warehouses  and 
improved  methods  of  handling  eggs  have  resulted  in  a  better  distribution  of 
the  supply  throughout  the  year  and  a  higher  standard  of  quality  upon  the 
large  city  markets. 

Importance  of  the  Farm  Flock. — The  farm  flocks  of  the  country 
furnish  90  and  possibly  95  per  cent  of  the  total  supply  of  poultry  and  eggs. 
It  is  natural  that  the  general  farms  should  be  the  principal  source  of  supply, 
because  poultry  husbandry  is  essentially  a  livestock  industry,  and  for  this 
reason,  best  adapted  to  development  under  farm  conditions.  The  farm 
provides  those  conditions  which  are  essential  to  profitable  poultry  produc- 
tion, viz.,  ample  range  and  pasture  at  low  cost,  cheaper  feeds,  the  oppor- 
tunity to  make  use  of  waste  materials  and  convert  them  into  marketable 
products,  low  labor  cost,  and  of  greatest  importance,  natural  conditions 
which  tend  to  increase  rather  than  to  decrease  the  health  and  vigor  of 
the  flock. 

Unfortunately,  the  average  farm  flock  falls  far  short  of  its  productive 
possibilities.  This  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  fowls  are  kept  on  the  farm 
primarily  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  home  table  with  fresh  meat  and 
eggs  and  have  not  been  regarded  as  an  important  source  of  income.  This 
has  resulted  in  flocks  of  small  size  and  poor  quality,  inadequate  equipment 
and  a  general  indifference  toward  poultry  on  the  farm.  The  increasing 
demand  for  poultry  and  eggs,  and  the  general  increase  in  the  farm  price 
of  these  products  have  resulted  in  making  the  farm  flock  of  good  size  and 
quality,  and  properly  equipped  and  handled,  an  important  source  of 
income.  In  addition  it  performs  its  primary  function  in  supplying  poultry 
and  eggs  for  the  home  table. 

The  Size  of  the  Farm  Flock. — The  size  of  the  farm  flock  is  an  important 
factor  in  determining  whether  poultry  is  to  be  a  profitable  farm  enterprise 

(86) 


THE    FARM    FLOCK     (POULTRY) 


8V 


or  not.  The  optimum  size  of  the  flock  for  a  particular  farm  depends  upon 
a  number  of  conditions.  These  conditions  are  so  variable  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  set  a  definite  standard  which  will  be  applicable  to  all  farms.  It  is 
evident,  however,  that  the  flock  should  number  at  least  100  fowls,  and, 
except  under  very  favorable  circumstances,  should  seldom  exceed  500 
fowls.  As  many  fowls  should  be  kept  as  possible  without  allowing  the 
poultry  work  to  come  in  direct  competition  with  more  important  farm  enter- 
prises. For  the  average  farm,  this  will  mean  a  flock  of  300  to  500  fowls. 
Sources  of  Income. — The  principal  sources  of  income  from  the  farm 
flock  are  poultry  and  eggs  for  market.  The  production  of  eggs  for  market 
is  the  more  important  because  of  the  relatively  greater  demand  for  them 
and  the  greater  convenience  with  which  they  may  be  produced  and  mar- 


A  TYPICAL  FARM  FLOCK. 

keted.  It  is  impossible  to  separate  the  two  and,  under  some  conditions,  the 
production  of  market  poultry  may  become  the  more  important.  Other 
possible  sources  of  income  are  the  sale  of  eggs  for  hatching,  fowls  for  breeding 
purposes,  day-old  chicks,  and  the  production  and  sale  of  pullets  for  egg 
production.  The  relative  importance  of  each  of  these  sources  of  income  and 
the  extent  to  which  they  may  be  combined  will  be  determined  by  the 
personality  of  the  poultryman  and  the  organization  of  the  farm  business. 
Advantages  of  Pure-Bred  Poultry. — A  second  factor  of  greater  impor- 
tance in  determining  the  value  of  the  farm  flock  is  the  quality  of  the  fowls. 
Pure-bred  poultry  is  superior  to  mongrel,  cross-bred  or  grade  fowls  because 
of  greater  reliability  in  breeding,  more  attractive  appearance,  ability  to 
feed  more  efficiently,  greater  uniformity  in  the  size,  shape  and  color  of  the 
eggs,  and  greater  uniformity  in  the  appearance  and  condition  of  the 
dressed  fowls.  The  first  cost  of  pure-bred  fowls  is  greater  than  of  inferior 
stock,  but  no  greater  investment  is  needed,  The  best  practice  in  starting 


:- 


WHITE  PLYMOUTH  ROCKS. l 

Winners  of  First  and  Second  Prize  Exhibition  Pens,  Madison  Square  Garden    N  Y 

December,  1911. 


BUFF  OEPINGTONS.1 

First  Prize  Exhibition  Pen,  Madison  Square  Garden,  N.  Y.,  December  31,  1915- 
January  5,  1916. 


1  Courtesy  of  Owen  Farms,  Vineyard  Haven,  Mass.,  Maurice  F.  Delano,  Proprietor. 
(88) 


THE    FARM    FLOCK     (POULTRY)  89 

a  flock  of  pure-bred  fowls  is  to  purchase  a  pen  consisting  of  a  male  and  four 
to  ten  females.  These  should  be  housed  apart  from  the  main  flock  and  all 
of  the  good  eggs  laid  during  the  breeding  season  should  be  incubated.  Pure- 
bred fowls  of  good  quality  may  be  purchased  in  the  late  summer  or  early 
fall  for  $3  to  $5  each  for  males  and  $2  to  $4  each  for  females.  Yearlings  or 
two-year-old  stock  should  be  bought.  After  the  pure-bred  flock  has  been 
established,  the  many  advantages  of  the  pure-bred  fowls  are  obtained 
without  additional  cost. 

Grading  Up  a  Farm  Flock. — While  pure-bred  poultry  are  always  to  be 
preferred,  it  is  possible  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  average  farm  flock 
by  the  use  of  a  pure-bred  male.  If  a  pure-bred  male  of  the  desired  variety 
is  mated  with  ten  or  twelve  of  the  best  hens  on  the  farm,  the  offspring  will 
carry  one-half  the  blood  of  their  sire.  If  the  male  is  a  strong,  prepotent 
individual,  a  large  percentage  of  the  offspring  will  resemble  him  in  many  of 
his  characteristics.  Ten  or  a  dozen  of  the  best  pullets  resulting  from  the 
original  mating  should  be  selected  and  mated  to  their  sire  for  the  second 
season.  The  offspring  from  this  mating  will  carry  75  per  cent  of  the  blood 
of  the  pure-bred  male.  For  the  third  season,  ten  or  a  dozen  of  the  best 
of  these  pullets  should  be  mated  to  another  pure-bred  male  of  the  same 
variety  and  of  similar  breeding.  It  is  advisable  to  obtain  the  second  male 
from  the  same  breeder  as  the  first  one.  If  the  fowls  used  have  been  care- 
fully selected,  the  offspring  from  this  third  mating  will  be  practically  as 
uniform  in  size,  shape  and  color  as  pure-bred  fowls. 

The  Choice  of  a  Variety. — The  choice  of  a  variety  for  the  farm  depends 
upon  the  purpose  for  which  poultry  is  kept  and  the  type  of  product  most 
in  demand  in  the  best  available  market.  The  efficiency  of  the  various 
varieties  depends  more  upon  the  breeding  and  handling  of  the  fowls  than 
upon  breed  or  variety  differences. 

The  most  popular  fowl  for  the  production  of  white  eggs  is  the  Single 
Comb  White  Leghorn.  It  is  not  a  good  market  fowl,  however,  because 
of  its  small  size,  nervous  temperament,  and  greater  loss  in  dressing.  The 
cockerels  make  good  broilers  at  weights  of  lj^  to  1^  pounds,  but  do  not 
make  good  roasters  or  capons. 

The  Plymouth  Rocks,  Rhode  Island  Reds  and  Wyandottes  are  the 
most  satisfactory  breeds  for  the  production  of  both  eggs  and  meat.  The 
solid-colored  varieties  of  the  Plymouth  Rock  and  Wyandotte,  particularly 
the  white  and  buff,  are  preferable  on  account  of  the  absence  of  dark- 
colored  pin  feathers.  The  Columbian  varieties  are  rapidly  increasing  in 
popularity.  The  most  popular  farm  fowl  in  the  past  has  been  the  Barred 
Plymouth  Rock.  It  is  slowly  being  replaced  by  some  of  the  newer  vari- 
eties. The  three  breeds  mentioned  are  good  layers,  hardy,  easily  handled; 
the  chicks  grow  rapidly,  making  them  well  adapted  to  the  production  of 
broilers.  They  make  superior  roasters  and  capons.  Where  the  market 
prefers  brown  eggs  or  will  not  pay  a  premium  for  white  eggs,  one  of  the 
many  varieties  of  these  three  breeds  should  be  chosen. 


WHITE 
First  Prize  Pen,  Chicago  Show,  December,  1912. 


SINGLE  COMB  RHODE  ISLAND  REDS.1 

First  Prize  Young  Pen  at  Boston  Show,  January,  1915. 

i  Courtesy  of  Owen  Farms,  Vineyard  Haven,  Mass.,  Maurice  F.  Delano,  Proprietor. 

yo ) 


THE    FARM    FLOCK     (POULTRY)  91 

Selection  of  the  Breeding  Stock. — It  is  seldom  necessary  and  never 
desirable  to  use  all  of  the  fowls  on  the  farm  for  breeding.  Special  matings 
are  necessary  each  season  in  order  to  make  any  definite  improvement  in 
the  quality  of  the  flock.  It  is  seldom  necessary  to  use  more  than  20  per 
cent  of  the  entire  flock  for  breeding.  The  fowls  used  for  this  purpose 
should  be  the  choicest  on  the  farm.  They  should  be  strong,  healthy  and 
vigorous,  above  the  average  in  size  for  the  variety,  good  layers  and  fully 
matured.  Hens  are  always  preferable  to  pullets,  because  the  eggs  from 
hens  are  larger,  hatch  better  and  produce  larger  and  more  vigorous  chicks. 
Strong,  vigorous,  early-hatched  cockerels  may  be  used,  but  yearling  or 
two-year-old  cocks  of  proven  breeding  ability  are  to  be  preferred.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  using  for  breeding  purposes  any  fowl  which  has 
had  any  sickness  at  any  time,  no  matter  how  well  it  may  appear  to 'have 
recovered. 

Housing  the  Breeding  Stock. — It  is  not  necessary  to  house  the  breed- 
ing flock  separately  during  the  entire  year.  The  fowls  to  be  used  for 
breeding  should  be  separated  from  the  main  flock  three  or  four  weeks 
before  it  is  necessary  to  save  eggs  for  hatching.  They  should  be  housed 
in  portable  colony  houses  during  the  breeding  season,  and  may  be  returned 
to  the  main  flock  as  soon  as  the  last  eggs  needed  for  hatching  are  gathered. 
The  colony  houses  may  then  be  used  for  the  growing  chicks  or  for  some 
other  purpose. 

INCUBATION 

Selection  of  Eggs  for  Hatching. — Eggs  for  hatching  should  weigh  not 
less  than  two  nor  more  than  two  and  one-half  ounces  each.  They  should 
be  of  a  medium  type,  neither  very  long  and  pointed  nor  very  short  and 
rounded.  The  shells  should  be  clean,  smooth  and  strong,  free  from  ridges, 
cracks,  transparent  spots  or  lime  deposits.  The  eggs  selected  should  be 
as  uniform  in  color  as  possible.  Dead  chalk-white  or  uniform  brown  eggs 
are  to  be  preferred.  Careful  selection  of  the  eggs  to  be  incubated  will  aid 
greatly  in  improving  the  general  quality  of  the  eggs  produced  by  the  flock. 

Care  of  Eggs  for  Hatching. — Eggs  for  hatching  should  be  gathered 
frequently,  two  or  three  times  daily,  and  immediately  removed  to  a  clean, 
dry  place  where  the  temperature  is  less  than  68°  F.  A  temperature  of 
50°  to  60°  F.  is  best.  Eggs  for  hatching  should  not  be  held  longer  than 
two  weeks,  as  there  is  a  rapid  loss  of  vitality  after  that  time.  They  should 
not  be  washed.  Eggs  hatch  better  if  they  are  turned  once  daily  from  the 
time  they  are  laid  until  set. 

Natural  or  Artificial  Incubation. — Whether  hens  or  incubators  should 
be  used  depends  upon  local  conditions.  If  chicks  are  wanted  before 
April  1st,  or  if  non-setting  varieties  are  kept,  or  if  more  than  150  chicks  are 
to  be  reared  each  season,  incubators  should  be  used.  There  is  no  apparent 
difference  between  the  vigor  and  vitality  of  hen-hatched  and  incubator- 
hatched  chicks. 

Hatching  with  Hens. — Hens  of  medium  weight,  from  five  to  seven 


92  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

pounds,  and  of  quiet  disposition  should  be  selected.  They  should  be 
kept  where  they  will  be  comfortable,  easily  controlled  and  free  from 
annoyance  by  other  fowls.  A  small  brood  coop  is  advisable  for  each  hen 
during  warm  weather.  These  coops  may  be  placed  in  a  cool,  shady  location 
and  the  nest  made  upon  the  ground,  a  bottomless  box  about  five  inches  high 
being  used  to  confine  the  nesting  material.  During  cool  weather,  a  com- 
fortable room  should  be  provided.  The  nests  used  should  be  approximately 
14  inches  square.  They  should  be  constructed  so  that  each  hen  may  be 
confined  to  her  own  nest.  In  this  way  a  number  of  hens  may  be  set  in 
the  same  room,  all  being  released  for  food  and  water  at  the  same  time. 
It  is  necessary  to  see  that  each  hen  returns  to  her  nest  as  soon  as  through 
feeding.  Several  hens  should  be  set  at  the  same  time.  This  will  save 
labor  and  allow  the  chicks  hatched  by  two  or  three  hens  to  be  given  to 
one  for  brooding.  Hens  should  be  removed  from  their  regular  nests  to 
the  nests  in  which  they  are  to  be  set  after  dark.  If  handled  quietly  and 
given  a  few  decoy  eggs  they  may  usually  be  moved  without  difficulty. 
The  hen  should  be  allowed  to  become  accustomed  to  her  new  surroundings 
before  setting  her.  This  usually  requires  two  to  three  days. 

Setting  hens  must  be  kept  free  from  lice  and  mites.  The  nest  box 
and  the  walls  of  the  coop  or  room  should  be  painted  or  sprayed  with  a 
good  lice  killer  a  few  days  before  the  hens  are  set.  The  hen  should  be 
well  dusted  with  a  good  insect  powder  two  or  three  days  before  the  eggs 
are  placed  under  her  and  again  two  or  three  days  before  the  chicks  hatch. 

The  feed  for  setting  hens  should  consist  of  hard  grains.  No  wet  or 
dry  mashes  should  be  given.  A  constant  supply  of  fresh  water,  grit  and 
shell  should  be  provided. 

One  hen  should  not  be  given  more  than  twelve  eggs  during  cold 
weather  or  more  than  fifteen  during  warm  weather. 

Should  any  eggs  become  broken  in  the  nest,  the  nesting  material 
should  be  renewed  and  all  badly  soiled  eggs  washed  in  water  at  a  tem- 
perature of  90°  F. 

Hatching  with  Incubators. — There  should  be  no  difficulty  in  hatching 
chicks  with  incubators  if  a  good  machine  and  good  eggs  are  used.  Different 
types  of  incubators  require  different  care.  Each  manufacturer  has  com- 
piled a  set  of  directions  for  the  operation  of  his  incubator  under  average 
conditions.  These  directions  should  be  carefully  followed  and  an  exact 
record  kept  of  the  operation  of  the  machine  throughout  the  hatch.  If 
results  are  not  satisfactory,  variations  should  be  made  in  the  operation 
of  the  incubator  during  the  following  hatch  as  the  judgment  of  the  operator 
indicates.  Poor  hatches  are  more  often  due  to  poor  eggs  than  to  any 
failure  on  the  part  of  the  incubator. 

BROODING 

Importance  of  the  Brooder. — The  greater  part  of  the  mortality  among 
young  chicks  occurs  during  the  first  four  to  six  weeks.  The  losses  during 


THE    FARM     FLOCK     (POULTRY) 


93 


this  period  are  very  great,  careful  observers  placing  the  total  mortality 
as  high  as  40  to  50  per  cent  of  all  chicks  hatched.  The  greater  part  of 
this  loss  is  due  directly  or  indirectly  to  poor  brooding.  In  order  to  reduce 
the  mortality  among  chicks  to  a  minimum,  good  brooders  must  be 
used. 

Qualifications  of  a  Good  Brooder. — A  good  brooder  for  farm  use  should 
be  capable  of  maintaining  a  temperature  of  90°  to  100°  F.  under  the  hover 
and  a  temperature  of  70°  to  85°  F.  outside  of  the  hover.  The  chicks  should 
be  allowed  to  choose  the  temperature  in  which  they  are  most  comfortable, 
and  should  not  be  com- 
pelled to  submit  to  any 
given  temperature. 

The  brooder  must 
be  well  ventilated,  pro- 
viding an  abundant  sup- 
ply of  pure,  fresh  air 
without  drafts  striking 
the  chicks.  Fresh  air  is 
as  essential  for  growing 
chicks  as  good  food  and 
water.  A  two-compart- 
ment brooder  is  advis- 
able, as  it  permits  of 
feeding  the  young  chicks 
in  fairly  cool,  fresh  air 
and  they  are  not  re- 
quired to  pass  directly 
from  the  warm  hover 
into  the  outside  atmos- 
phere. 

The    brooder    for 
farm  use  should  be  por- 
table.    Chickens  should  A  BROODER  HEATED  BY  OIL  LAMP.* 
not   be    reared    on    the 

same  ground  year  after  year.  The  most  satisfactory  results  will  be 
obtained  by  rearing  them  in  the  orchard,  in  the  cornfield  after  the  last 
cultivation,  or  on  the  hay  and  grain  fields  after  the  crops  are  harvested, 
moving  the  brooders  from  place  to  place  frequently.  If  handled  in  this 
manner,  the  chicks  will  make  use  of  a  large  amount  of  waste  material  and 
will  be  more  healthy  and  vigorous  and  make  more  rapid  growth  than 
if  confined  to  small  yards. 

The  brooder  should  be  usable  for  some  purpose  during  the  entire 
year.  Any  brooder  which  can  be  used  only  for  brooding  chickens  is 
unsatisfactory  for  farm  use.  It  should  be  capable  of  housing  the  chicks 


1  Courtesy  of  I*rairie  State  Incubator  Company ,  Homer  City,  Pa. 
40 


94  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

from  the  time  they  are  hatched  until  fully  matured,  and  should  be  readily 
convertible  into  a  breeding  house  or  fattening  pen. 

The  brooding  device  which  best  meets  these  requirements  is  a  portable 
colony  house  6  by  8  feet  to  8  by  15  feet  in  size,  equipped  with  portable 
hovers,  gasoline  brooder  heater  or  a  coal-burning  brooder  stove. 

Management  of  the  Brooder. — During  the  first  two  weeks  a  tem- 
perature above  90°  and  below  100°  F.  should  be  maintained  two  inches 
above  the  floor  in  the  warmest  part  of  the  brooder,  that  is,  beneath  the 
hover.  After  the  second  week  the  temperature  should  be  gradually 
reduced,  the  exact  temperature  to  be  maintained  being  determined  from 
the  actions  of  the  chicks.  If  the  temperature  is  right,  the  chicks  when 
at  rest  will  be  spread  out  around  the  outer  edge  of  the  hover.  Any  evidence 
of  crowding  is  an  indication  of  a  lack  of  heat.  If  the  temperature  under 
the  hover  is  kept  a  degree  or  two  higher  than  the  chicks  actually  need, 
there  will  be  very  little  crowding. 

The  brooder  must  be  kept  absolutely  clean  at  all  times.  The  floor 
should  be  covered  to  a  depth  of  several  inches  with  clean,  dry  litter,  such 
as  short-cut  clover,  alfalfa,  straw  or  chaff.  The  litter  should  be  removed 
whenever  it  becomes  damp,  dusty  or  soiled/ 

Ration  for  Chicks. — A  good  ration  for  chicks  consists  of  a  grain  mix- 
ture of  30  pounds  finely  cracked  corn,  20  pounds  cracked  wheat  and 
10  pounds  pin-head  or  cracked  hulled  oats.  With  this  should  be  fed  a 
mash  consisting  of  30  pounds  wheat  bran,  30  pounds  wheat  middlings, 
30  pounds  corn  meal,  20  pounds  fine  beef  scrap  or  granulated  milk  and 
10  pounds  of  bone  meal.  This  ration  should  be  supplemented  by  a  liberal 
supply  of  succulent  food  such  as  alfalfa,  clover,  sprouted  oats  or  beets. 
Fine  grit,  finely  crushed  oyster  shell,  charcoal  and  clean  fresh  water  should 
be  before  the  chicks  at  all  times.  If  skim  milk  is  available,  the  chicks 
should  have  all  they  wrill  consume. 

The  grain  should  be  scattered  in  the  litter  on  the  floor  of  the  brooder 
in  order  to  induce  the  chicks  to  exercise.  Grain  should  be  fed  early  in 
in  the  morning,  at  noon  and  later  in  the  afternoon.  As  much  should  be 
fed  as  the  chicks  will  clean  up  from  one  feeding  time  to  the  next.  If  any 
considerable  amount  remains  in  the  litter,  a  feed  should  be  omitted  and 
the  amount  reduced.  No  definite  information  can  be  given  as  to  the 
exact  amount  to  feed,  as  the  needs  of  the  chicks  vary  from  day  to  day. 
The  poultryman  must  study  the  appetite  and  actions  of  the  flock  in  order 
to  feed  intelligently. 

The  mash  should  be  fed  dry.  Shallow  pans  may  be  used  for  feeding 
the  mash  while  the  chicks  are  small.  Small  feeding  hoppers  should  be 
used  as  soon  as  the  chicks  are  large  enough  to  feed  from  them.  Chicks 
should  never  be  without  the  dry  mash. 

This  method  of  feeding  should  be  continued  until  the  chicks  are  large 
enough  to  do  without  artificial  heating  or  are  weaned  from  the  hen,  with 
the  exception  that  the  cracked  wheat  should  be  gradually  replaced  by 


THE    FARM    FLOCK     (POULTRY)  95 

whole  wheat,  and  the  finely  cracked  corn  by  the  coarse  cracked  corn, 
when  the  chicks  are  six  to  eight  weeks  old.  After  the  chicks  have  free 
range,  the  grain  mixture  may  be  changed  to  equal  parts  of  cracked  corn 
and  whole  wheat.  The  same  dry  mash  should  be  continued  until  the 
chicks  are  mature.  The  grain  may  also  be  fed  in  hoppers  after  this  time. 
The  Care  of  Growing  Chicks. — The  age  at  which  chicks  may  be 
deprived  of  artificial  heat  will  depend  upon  weather  conditions  and  the 
co'ndition  of  the  chicks.  This  should  not  be  done  until  all  danger  of  sudden 
changes  in  temperature  is  past  and  the  chicks  are  well  feathered  out. 
During  the  brooding  period  the  brooders  may  be  kept  close  to  the  farm- 
stead and  small,  portable  runs  provided  for  the  chicks.  As  the  chicks 
increase  in  size,  the  brooder  should  be  moved  farther  away  and  the  size 
of  the  yards  increased.  As  soon  as  the  chicks  no  longer  require  artificial 
heat  they  should  be  given  free  range.  They  must  have  plenty  of  shade, 
abundant  pasture,  be  kept  free  from  lice  and  mites  and  protected  from 
their  natural  enemies.  The  brooder  should  be  proof  against  rats,  weasels, 
etc.,  and  should  be  closed  every  night.  The  chicks  should  be  confined  to 
the  house  in  the  morning  until  the  grass  is  well  dried  off.  This  practice 
should  be  followed  at  least  until  they  are  half  grown.  The  cockerels  should 
be  separated  from  the  pullets  as  soon  as  the  sex  can  be  determined.  It  is 
advisable  to  caponize  all  males  except  a  few  of  the  most  promising  to  be 
reserved  for  breeding  purposes.  The  pullets  will  be  hindered  in  their 
development  if  the  cockerels  are  allowed  to  remain  with  them.  The 
cockerels,  if  not  caponized,  should  be  put  together  in  a  separate  field  or 
on  another  part  of  the  farm. 

The  Care  of  the  Pullets. — The  pullets  should  be  transferred  from 
the  colony  house  on  the  range  to  their  permanent  winter  quarters  as  soon 
after.the  first  of  September  as  possible.  This  will  give  them  an  opportunity 
to  become  accustomed  to  their  new  surroundings  before  cold  weather  sets 
in.  Careful  attention  must  be  given  the  pullets  at  this  time.  There  is 
usually  a  tendency  for  them  to  crowd  on  the  roosts  at  night  or  to  roost 
above  the  open  doors  and  windows.  This  should  be  prevented,  as  it  may 
result  in  colds  which  will  hinder  egg  production.  The  bulk  of  the  eggs 
received  from  October  1st  to  March  1st  are  produced  by  the  pullets. 

Feeding  Mature  Fowls. — The  principal  object  in  feeding  should  be 
to  use  the  poultry  on  the  farm  for  the  purpose  of  converting  grains,  mill 
by-products  and  waste  materials  not  suitable  for  human  consumption 
in  their  raw  state  into  concentrated,  easily  handled,  nutritious  food 
products.  For  this  reason  the  farmer  should  make  use  of  grains  grown 
on  his  own  farm  and  of  mill  products  which  are  easily  obtained  at  com- 
paratively low  prices,  supplementing  them  with  the  necessary  protein 
concentrates. 

Suitable  rations  may  be  made  from  a  great  many  combinations  of 
grains  and  mill  feeds.  There  is  no  one  combination  which  is  superior  to 
all  others  under  all  conditions.  For  this  reason  it  is  possible  for  the  farmer 


96  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

to  adjust  any  suggested  ration  to  meet  his  own  conditions  without  seriously 
impairing  its  efficiency. 

The  ration  should  contain  in  proper  proportions  the  various  food 
elements  required  by  the  fowl.  It  should  be  easily  digested  and  assimilated, 
palatable,  economical,  suitable  for  its  intended  purpose,  easily  obtained, 
easily  handled  and  conveniently  fed.  It  should  be  a  two-part  ration 
consisting  of  a  grain  mixture  of  scratch  feed  and  a  mash.  It  is  not  possible 
to  obtain  a  maximum  of  production  with  either  grain  or  mash  alone. 
They  should  be  fed  in  combination  with  grain  constituting  approximately 
two-thirds  of  the  ration. 

The  following  ration  and  method  of  feeding  is  particularly  adapted 
to  farm  conditions.  The  ration  as  given  is  based  on  feeds  at  normal 
prices  and  may  be  varied  with  a  variation  in  the  price  of  any  feed.  The 
grain  mixture  consists  of  200  pounds  corn,  preferably  cracked,  200  pounds 
wheat,  and  100  pounds  heavy  oats.  If  buckwheat  is  available,  100  pounds 
may  be  added  during  cold  weather.  The  mash  consists  of  200  pounds 
corn  meal,  100  pounds  wheat  bran,  100  pounds  wheat  middlings  and 
100  pounds  of  beef  scrap  containing  not  less  than  55  per  cent  protein. 

The  grain  should  be  fed  by  hand,  being  scattered  in  clean  litter  six 
to  twelve  inches  deep.  The  grain  should  be  fed  at  least  twice  daily,  prefer- 
ably early  in  the  morning  and  late  in  the  afternoon.  If  it  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  fowls  confined  to  the  house,  it  is  advisable  to  give  additional 
light  feeds  in  the  middle  of  the  forenoon  and  in  the  middle  of  the  afternoon 
in  order  to  keep  the  fowls  busy. 

The  amount  to  be  fed  will  vary  with  the  variety,  the  weather  condi- 
tions, the  egg  production  and  various  other  factors.  It  should  be  deter- 
mined by  the  actions  and  appetites  of  the  fowls.  They  should  be  well 
fed.  Endeavor  should  be  made  to  regulate  the  feeding  so  that  they  will 
consume  approximately  twice  as  much  grain  as  mash.  Fowls  of  medium 
size  when  in  full  lay  will  consume  from  2  to  2J^  ounces  of  grain  daily. 

The  mash  should  be  fed  dry.  Self-feeding  hoppers  should  be  used. 
For  Leghorns  and  similar  varieties  and  for  pullets  of  the  dual  purpose 
varieties,  such  as  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  etc.,  the  hopper  should 
be  open  during  the  entire  day.  For  yearlings  and  older  hens  of  the  dual 
purpose  varieties,  the  hopper  should  be  opened  at  noon  and  closed  when 
the  evening  feed  is  given. 

This  ration  should  be  supplemented  by  a  constant  supply  of  clean, 
fresh  water,  grit  and  oyster  shell.  Sour  skim  milk  should  be  fed  as  a 
drink  if  it  is  available,  allowing  the  fowls  to  consume  all  they  will.  Succu- 
lent feed  of  some  sort  is  necessary.  During  the  late  fall  and  winter, 
mangels,  sprouted  oats,  unsalable  cabbage,  beets,  apples,  potatoes, 
steamed  clover  or  alfalfa,  or  any  other  succulent  food  available  may  be 
used.  The  yards  should  furnish  all  the  green  feed  required  during  the 
spring  and  summer. 

The  Care  of  Market  Eggs. — The  quality  of  market  eggs  is  determined 


THE    FARM     FLOCK     (POULTRY) 


97 


by  their  size,  shape,  appearance  and  freshness  or  interior  quality.  All  of 
these  factors  may  be  controlled  by  the  poultryman  to  a  considerable 
degree  through  breeding  and  the  care  with  which  the  eggs  are  handled. 
Improvement  of  the  quality  of  the  eggs  produced  is  fully  as  important 
from  a  financial  point  of  view  as  increased  production.  If  the  following 
suggestions  are  observed,  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  producing  eggs  of  a 
quality  that  will  meet  the  requirements  of  the  best  grades  in  any  market. 

Breed  only  from  hens  which  lay  eggs  of  the  desired  size,  shape  and 
color. 

Provide  for  at  least  one  clean,  convenient,  well-ventilated  nest  for 
every  four  or  five  hens  in  the  flock. 

Renew  the  nesting  material  whenever  it  becomes  damp,  dusty  or 
soiled.  Planer  shav- 
ings make  excellent 
material  for  nests,  but 
soft  hay  and  clean 
straw  may  be  used. 

Gather  eggs  at 
least  twice  daily  and 
more  often  if  conve- 
nient. This  is  par- 
ticularly important 
during  cold  weather 
to  avoid  freezing,  and 
during  warm  weather 
to  avoid  the  develop- 
ment of  the  embryo 
and  to  retard  evap- 
oration. 

From     the     time 

eggs  are  gathered  until  marketed,  keep  them  in  a  clean,  cool,  dry  place. 
Fertile  eggs  will  begin  to  develop  at  any  temperature  over  68°  F. 

Do  not  put  eggs  into  a  box,  basket,  carton  or  case  until  all  the  animal 
heat  has  escaped.  When  gathered,  place  them  on  a  wire  tray  similar 
to  an  incubator  tray  for  ten  to  twelve  hours  and  then  grade  and  pack 
them  in  standard  cartons  or  cases. 

Market  eggs  at  least  once  weekly  and  more  often  if  possible.  Nothing 
is  ever  gained  by  holding  eggs  for  a  rise  in  price.  The  egg  is  a  perishable 
food  product  and  should  be  marketed  as  soon  as  possible  in  order  to  avoid 
deterioration  and  loss. 

Market  eggs  in  standard  egg  packages.  The  standard  thirty-dozen 
egg  case  is  preferred.  If  production  is  not  great  enough  to  enable  a  case 
or  two  of  graded  eggs  to  be  shipped  weekly,  use  the  smaller,  returnable 
cases  which  may  be  secured  from  any  dealer  in  poultry  supplies. 

1  Courtesy  of  Mbsouri  State  Poultry  Experiment  Station,  Mt.  Grove,  Ma 


SHIPPING  CASES  FOB  EGGS.* 


98  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

When  eggs  are  being  transported  from  the  farm  to  the  market  or 
shipping  point,  they  should  be  protected  from  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

Do  not  wash  eggs.  The  washing  of  eggs  greatly  impairs  their  keeping 
qualities  and  spoils  their  appearance.  Market  eggs  should  never  be  allowed 
to  become  wet.  Moisture  dissolves  the  protective  bloom  or  covering  of 
the  shell,  opens  the  pores  and  allows  bacteria  and  moulds  to  enter.  Avoid 
the  necessity  for  washing  by  providing  sufficient  nests  and  keeping  the 
house  and  yards  clean. 

Remove  all  males  from  the  flock  as  soon  as  the  hatching  season  is 
over  and  keep  them  away  from  the  hens  during  the  warm  weather.  The 
male  has  no  influence  on  the  number  of  eggs  produced.  His  only  function 
and  use  on  the  farm  is  to  fertilize  the  eggs  to  be  used  for  hatching.  Fertile 
eggs  spoil  very  quickly  during  warm  weather.  Approximately  18  per  cent 
of  all  eggs  produced  upon  farms  become  unfit  for  food  before  reaching 
the  consumer.  At  least  half  of  this  loss  could  be  avoided  if  only  infertile 
eggs  were  produced. 

REFERENCES 

"Productive  Poultry  Husbandry."     Lewis. 

"  Turkeys."     Reliable  Poultry  Journal  Co. 

"Principles  and  Practices  of  Poultry  Culture."     Robinson. 

"How  to  Keep  Hens  for  Profit."     Valentine. 

"The  Beginner  in  Poultry."     Valentine. 

"Farm  Poultry."     Watson. 

"Races  of  Domestic  Poultry."     Brown. 

"Poultry  Production."     Lippincott. 

"Poultry  Breeding."     Purvis. 

"Our  Domestic  Birds."     Robinson. 

North  Carolina  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  233.     "Common  Diseases  of  Poultry." 

Ohio  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  284.     "Rations  for  Roosters  and  Capons." 

Purdue  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  182.     "Poultry  Investigations." 

West  Virginia  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  102. 

Canadian  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletins: 

189.     "Farm  Poultry." 

193.     "Tuberculosis  in  Fowls." 

217.     "Farm  Poultry." 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

309.     "Incubation  of  Eggs;"   "Causes  of  Young  Chicks'  Death:"   "Snow  for 
Chicks." 

317.     "Water  Pans  and  Catching  Hook  for  Poultry." 

357.     "Methods  of  Poultry  Management  at  Maine  Station." 

452.     "Capons  and  Caponizing." 

528.     "Hints  to  Poultry  Raisers." 

530.     "Important  Poultry  Diseases." 

585.     "Natural  and  Artificial  Incubation  of  Hen's  Eggs." 

624.     "Natural  and  Artificial  Brooding  of  Chicks." 

656.     "The  Community  Egg  Circle." 

682.     "A  Simple  Trap  Nest  for  Poultry." 


CHAPTER  9 

BEES 

Many  farmers  are  unaware  of  the  great  service  rendered  them  by  the 
honey  bee;  especially  in  horticulture  and  vegetable  raising  is  he  a  necessary 
asset.  Estimates  from  reliable  data  show  that  bees  in  the  United  States 
produce  $25,000,000  worth  of  honey  and  beeswax  annually.  Their  value 
as  agents  in  the  pollinization  of  fruits  and  vegetables  is  many  times  their 
worth  as  producers.  Many  small  fruits  are  entirely  dependent  upon 
insect  visitors  for  fertilization.  Cucumbers,  squash,  melons  and  tomatoes 
are  also  dependent  upon  the  bees  for  the  production  of  fruit.  [_Pear  trees 
especially  need  the  bees  for  cross-pollinization. 

Aside  from  the  service  rendered  as  pollinators,  bees,  if  properly 
handled,  make  a  most  profitable  side  line  in  the  business  of  farming. 
While  they  need  intelligent  care,  and  care  at  the  proper  time,  yet  much  of 
this  can  be  given  at  odd  hours  and  at  times  when  the  regular  farm  work 
is  not  pressing.  Even  the  time  of  swarming  can  be  anticipated  and  to  some 
extent  regulated. 

Bee  keeping  furnishes  a  most  pleasant  recreation  and  one  that  pays 
its  own  way  as  well  as  produces  a  profit.  There  is  so  much  of  marvel  in 
the  economy  of  the  honey  bee  that  the  most  casual  observer  becomes  an 
enthusiast. 

One  disadvantage  may  be  mentioned,  however.  Many  orchard  and 
garden  diseases  are  easily  spread  by  means  of  spores  carried  by  insects. 
The  bee  plays  no  small  part  in  the  distribution  of  plant  contagion.  Pear- 
tree  blight,  the  brown  rot  of  plums  and  the  wilt  of  cucumbers  and  melons 
are  diseases  spread  through  the  agency  of  bees  and  other  insects.  The 
danger  of  infection  may  be  reduced  to  the  minimum  by  exterminating  all 
diseased  plants  and  trees;  thus  giving  the  bees  no  opportunity  to  carry 
contagion. 

Breeds  of  Bees. — The  German  bee  is  the  most  common  in  the  United 
States.  Although  not  very  attractive  in  color,  being  black,  they  winter 
well  and  make  whiter  honey  combs  than  any  other  race.  At  times  they  are 
inclined  to  be  cross  and  frequently  use  their  stings.  They  are  not  easily 
handled  by  the  novice. 

The  Cyprian  bees  are  handsome,  being  yellow  in  color,  but  have  not 
come  into  wide  popularity  on  account  of  their  extreme  sensitiveness. 
When  once  aroused,  they  will  not  even  be  subdued  by  smoke. 

The  Carolina  bee  is  one  of  the  most  gentle  of  all  bees.  It  is  gray  in 
color  and  very  prolific.  The  chief  objection  to  this  bee  is  its  ever-ready 
tendency  to  swarm. 

99 


100 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


The  Caucasian  bee  has  only  recently  been  introduced  into  this  country 
and  has  not  yet  established  wide  popularity.  It  is  prolific  and  so  gentle 
that  some  report  it  to  be  without  sting.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case. 

The  Italian  bee  is  the  most  satisfactory  and  profitable.  It  is  more 
gentle  than  either  the  German  or  Cyprian,  and  quite  prolific.  It  is  hand- 
some in  color,  having  yellow  bands,  and  is  an  energetic  worker  in  gathering 
honey.  It  is  also  most  active  in  defence  of  its  home  against  marauders. 
In  order  to  winter  well,  the  Italian  bee  must  be  well  protected. 

Personnel  and  Activity  of  Colony. — A  bee  colony  consists  ordinarily 
of  one  queen  bee,  who  is  the  mother  of  the  colony,  and  a  multitude  of 
females  (sexually  undeveloped),  who  carry  on  the  work  of  the  hive.  The 


THE  HONEY  BEE.1 
A — Worker.     B — Queen.     C — Drone.     Twice  natural  size. 

queen  bee  lays  all  the  eggs.  The  female  workers  lay  no  eggs  at  all.  It  is 
their  duty  to  gather  honey,  feed  the  young,  keep  the  hive  clean;  in  fact, 
perform  all  the  labors  of  the  hive. 

_  During  some  parts  of  the  year,  hundreds  of  males,  commonly  called 
drones,  live  in  the  colony.  These  perform  no  labor.  Their  mission  is  to 
mate  with  the  young  queens.  Their  number  should  be  restricted  by  the 
keeper. 

The  bee  hive  permits  of  no  idlers  after  the  young  queens  are  mated. 
The  drones  are  then  destroyed  by  the  workers.  Even  the  queen  bee  is 
killed  or  superseded  by  a  younger  queen  as  soon  as  she  lays  no  more  eggs. 
In  fact,  any  individual  in  the  colony  who  ceases  to  be  useful  is  immediately 
put  to  death  or  thrown  out  to  perish. 

The  length  of  life  of  any  bee  depends  much  upon  the  time  of  year  and 
amount  of  labor  performed.  In  summer,  which  is  the  working  season,  a 
worker  bee  will  live  about  45  days.  During  the  winter  months,  while 

i  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    Farmers'  Bulletin  447. 


BEES 


101 


dormant,  time  of  life  will  extend  from  6  to^Stm^ntho,  ^Itjs,,  therefore; 
necessary  to  maintain  a  strong,  prolific  queen  *m  order"  +*&  ?iepqpi4ate  the 
colony. 

Size  and  Location  of  Apiary. — Authorities  agree  that  for  the  most 
intensive  bee  culture,  100  colonies  are  all  that  can  be  managed  with  profit. 

The  beginner  will  do  well  to  start  with  a  colony  or  two  and  gradually 
build  up  as  he  becomes  more  familiar  with  the  work.  A  year  or  two  will 
prove  his  success  or  failure.  While  the  necessary  initial  capital  is  small, 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  AN  API  ART.1 

still  a  plunge  into  the  bee  business  without  previous  experience  and  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  bee  habits  is  very  apt  to  end  in  disaster. 

The  ideal  location  for  an  apiary  is  in  an  orchard  or  near  fields  where 
bloom  is  plenty;  although  colonies  have  been  successfully  maintained  in 
city  back  yards  and  even  on  housetops. 

Although  bees  travel  a  distance  of  two  miles  in  search  of  nectar,  it  is 
best  to  provide  for  it  nearer  home.  The  time  wasted  in  transit  is  negative, 
as  the  bee  flies  very  rapidly;  but  if  far  from  home,  sudden  rain  or  wind 
storms  bewilder  the  bees  and  cause  loss  of  life.  In  rainy  or  cold  weather, 
bees  do  not  travel  far  from  the  hive.  Should  the  nectar  be  far  afield,  con- 
tinued unfavorable  weather  necessarily  decreases  their  activity. 

The  hives  should  be  placed  a  few  feet  apart  so  that  in  working  with 

^Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    Farmers'  Bulletin  447. 


102 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


one,  the  adjacent  hive  is  not  disturbed.  They  should  be  far  enough  away 
from  roads:  ^  <w&iks  scr  as  not  to  annoy  passersby. 

In  the  North,  hives  should  be  placed  on  a  sunny  slope,  facing  away 
from  the  prevailing  winds.    Some  shade  is  desirable,  but  the  hives  should 

be  so  placed  as  to  catch  the 
morning  sun.  This  encourages 
bee  activity  early  in  the  day, 
thus  gathering  the  best  of  the 
nectar. 

The  colony  must  be  located 
in  a  dry  place  and  kept  free  from 
weeds,  each  hive  being  raised  a 
few  inches  from  the  ground  by 
means  of  a  stand.  These  stands 
may  be  of  wood,  stone  or  con- 
crete, and  serve  to  keep  the 
hive  dry. 

Shade  and  Ventilation. — A 
reasonable  amount  of  shade  is 
beneficial,  although  dense  shading 
of  the  apiary  is  disastrous.  It 
promotes  dampness  and  encour- 
ages disease.  If  a  natural  shade 
is  not  possible,  a  temporary 
shade  of  boards  or  canvas  should 
be  used  during  the  heated  por- 
tions of  the  day.  Newly  swarmed 
hives  should  be  kept  well  shaded 
and  cool.  Temperature  influ- 
ences the  swarming  habit;  a 
colony  subjected  to  the  burning 
rays  of  the  sun  will  swarm  much 
sooner  than  one  well  shaded. 

Roomy,  well-ventilated  hives 
are  necessary   for    comfort   and 
health.     During  warm  weather, 
A  MODERN  BEE  HivE.1  ventilation    is   improved    by 

raising  the   front    of   the    hive 

two  or  three  inches  by  supporting  it  upon  small  blocks  of  wood.  Care 
must  be  taken,  however,  to  lower  the  hive  in  case  of  a  change  in 
temperature.  Most  authorities  do  not  approve  of  opening  the  upper 
part  of  the  hive.  It  is  apt  to  cause  a  draft  through  the  hive,  and  also 
encourage  robber  bees.  A  wide  entrance  at  the  bottom  is  much  preferred 
for  ventilation  purposes. 

1  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    Farmers'  Bulletin  503. 


BEES  103 

Stocking  the  Apiary. — Bees  may  be  secured  more  easily  at  swarming 
time  and  the  colonies  are  apt  to  be  stronger  at  that  time.  Usually  the 
purchaser  provides  a  hive  into  which  the  apiarist  puts  the  new  swarm. 
This  may  be  moved  at  night  and,  if  taken  a  distance  of  a  mile  or  more, 
there  is  no  danger  of  the  bees  returning.  A  good  strong  colony  purchased 
at  this  time  will  yield  a  second  swarm  if  the  season  is  favorable. 

Introducing  a  New  Queen. — The  prosperity  of  the  colony  depends 
much  upon  the  strength  of  the  queen.  Bees  from  a  strong  queen  winter 
better  than  those  from  a  weak  one,  and  are  more  prolific  in  spring.  If  the 
queen  becomes  weakened,  it  is  best  not  to  wait  until  the  workers  destroy 
her,  but  to  make  away  with  her  and  introduce  a  new  one  at  once.  Queens 
may  be  purchased  from  any  dealer  in  bee-queens.  They  are  sent  through 
the  mail  in  a  small  cage,  accompanied  by  a  few  workers. 

Many  methods  of  introducing  a  new  queen  are  used,  but  if  the  queen 
is  a  valuable  one,  it  is  best  to  use  a  perfectly  safe  method.  Remove  the 
old  queen  in  the  evening.  In  the  morning  lay  the  cage  containing  the 
new  queen  and  attendants,  wire  side  down,  on  the  frames  under  the  quilt. 
Close  the  hive  and  leave  it  alone.  In  a  short  time  the  bees  will  have 
eaten  their  way  into  the  cage  and  released  the  queen.  The  wait  over 
night  is  necessary  on  account  of  the  excited  condition  of  the  bees  when 
their  queen  is  removed.  This  excitement  might  cause  them  to  destroy 
the  new  queen.  Queens  introduced  in  this  manner  are  generally  at  work 
in  two  or  three  days  laying  eggs. 

Some  introduce  by  first  blowing  tobacco  smoke  down  the  hive  to 
drive  the  bees  down,  then;  release  the  queen  and  allow  her  to  run  down 
between  the  combs,  blowing  a  little  smoke  after  her.  This  not  only  obscures 
all  strange  odors  about  the  queen,  but  stupefies  the  bees. 

Introducing  a  queen  makes  the  opportunity  to  change  breeds  of 
bees,  as  the  new  queen  is  usually  mated  when  purchased.  Queens  are 
sold  under  one  of  three  labels:  tested  queens  that  are  mated  with  a 
drone  whose  race  is  known;  untested  queens  mated  with  an  unknown 
drone;  and  breeding  queens,  those  that  have  shown  superiority  for  breed- 
ing purposes  before  leaving  their  home.  The  bees  in  the  colony  have  no 
influence  on  the  progeny  of  the  new  queen  already  mated.  By  the  time 
the  new  brood  hatches  out,  the  old  ones  begin  to  die,  and  soon  the  race 
is  changed. 

Uniting  and  Transferring  Colonies. — It  often  becomes  advisable  to 
unite  two  weak  colonies,  making  one  strong  one.  Some  fundamental 
facts  about  bees  must  be  understood  in  order  to  make  this  a  success. 
Every  colony  has  a  distinct  odor  and  resents  bees  from  other  colonies. 
It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  obscure  this  odor  by  using  smoke.  Smoke 
also  stupefies  the  bees  and  renders  them  more  docile.  Both  colonies 
should  be  smoked,  but  care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  too  much  smoke, 
or  the  bees  will  be  completely  overcome.  One  queen  should  be  destroyed; 
the  one  saved  should  be  caged  for  a  day  or  so  to  prevent  the  bees  killing 


104  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

her.  At  swarming  time  when  the  bees  are  full  of  honey,  it  is  a  simple 
matter  to  unite  colonies.  If  the  two  colonies  are  not  near  each  other, 
one  should  be  moved  nearer  the  other,  a  few  feet  each  day,  that  the  bees 
may  not  notice  the  changed  location.  When  side  by  side  the  change  can 
be  made  without  difficulty. 

Transferring  a  colony  from  a  box  hive  to  one  with  movable  frames 
often  becomes  necessary.  This  should  be  done  during  the  honey  season 
and  while  the  larger  number  of  bees  are  in  the  field.  The  two  hives  should 
be  adjacent.  The  new  hive  should  contain  combs  or  sheets  of  foundations. 
Turn  the  box  hive  upside  down  and  fit  over  it  a  small  empty  box,  inverted. 
Then  drum  on  the  hive  until  most  of  the  bees  desert  their  combs  and  go 
into  the  empty  box  above.  These  may  be  carried  to  the  new  hive  and 
put  at  the  entrance.  Care  must  be  taken  to  secure  the  queen,  as  the 
bees  will  not  remain  without  her.  If  there  is  brood  in  the  old  hive,  turn 
it  right  side  up  again  and  after  twenty-one  days  this  will  be  hatched  out. 
These  bees  may  then  be  gathered  in  the  same  manner  and,  by  smoking 
both  colonies,  reunited  in  the  new  hive. 

General  Methods  of  Handling. — Certain  general  rules  will  apply 
at  all  times  in  handling  bees. 

Hives  should  never  be  jarred  or  disturbed  more  than  necessary. 
Rapid  movements  should  be  avoided.  Bees  have  a  peculiar  eye  structure 
which  enables  them  to  see  movements  more  readily  than  objects.  Quick 
movements  irritate  them,  causing  them  to  sting.  Stings  are  not  only 
painful,  but  the  odor  of  the  poison  irritates  the  other  bees,  thus  making 
them  difficult  to  manage.  The  novice  should  wear  a  veil  over  a  broad  hat, 
and  use  •  a  good  smoker.  A  few  puffs  are  sufficient  to  subdue  the  bees. 
Gloves  generally  prove  a  nuisance,  but  rubber  bands  on  the  arms  prevent 
the  bees  crawling  up  inside  the  sleeves.  Black  clothing  is  particularly 
objectionable  to  bees.  Do  not  handle  bees  at  night  or  on  cold,  wet  days, 
unless  absolutely  necessary.  The  middle  of  the  day,  particularly  during 
the  honey  season,  is  the  best  time  to  manipulate  bees.  Always  stand  to 
the  side  or  back  of  the  hive,  never  in  front  of  the  entrance.  In  handling 
frames,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  let  the  bees  drop  off  on  to  the  ground. 

Swarming. — Swarming  is  the  exit  of  the  original  queen  with  part 
of  her  workers  to  seek  a  new  home.  In  this  manner,  new  colonies  are 
formed.  An  abundant  supply  of  honey  and  a  crowded  condition  of  the 
hive  are  the  immediate  causes  of  swarming.  Swarming  may  occur  in 
May,  but  is  more  apt  to  occur  during  July  and  August,  or  when  the  honey 
flow  is  at  its  best. 

The  only  outward  indication  preceding  swarming  is  a  partial  cessation 
of  field  work  and  the  loafing  of  many  bees  about  the  entrance,  as  if  waiting 
for  some  signal.  Suddenly  the  bees  all  rush  forth,  accompanied  by  the 
old  queen,  and  after  circling  about  for  a  time,  cluster  on  a  nearby  limb. 
This  is  the  critical  time  for  the  bee  keeper.  If  he  has  made  no  previous 
preparation  to  house  his  departing  swarm,  he  may  lose  them  altogether. 


BEES 


105 


A  wise  keeper  will  have  clean  hives  in  readiness.  These  should  be 
kept  in  a  shady  place,  so  as  to  be  cool  as  possible  for  the  incoming  swarm. 
Newly  swarmed  colonies  will  not  remain  in  overheated  hives.  For  this 
reason  the  hive  should  be  kept  well  shaded  and  well  ventilated  for  several 
days  after  the  swarm  goes  into  it.  Some  recommend  giving  a  frame  of 
brood  to  the  newcomers,  as  bees  are  less  apt  to  desert  this. 

Bees  rarely  fail  to  cluster  after  swarming.  If  they  light  on  a  limb 
that  can  be  spared,  it  may  be  sawed  off  and  the  bees  carried  to  the  new 
hive.  If  this  is  not  practical,  the  bees  may  be  shaken  off  into  a  basket 
or  box  and  taken  to  the  hive.  A  box  with  a  long  handle  is  useful  for  swarms 
on  high  limbs.  It  is  not  necessary  to  secure  all  the  bees.  If  the  queen 
is  hived  the  rest  will  follow.  If  she  is  not  hived, 
however,  the  bees  will  leave  the  hive  and  join 
the  cluster  again.  Bees  are  usually  peaceful  at 
swarming  time,  having  filled  themselves  with 
honey  before  starting  out.  A  little  smoke  blown 
into  the  cluster  usually  subdues  them. 

Great  care  must  be  used  in  handling  the  bees 
that  none  be  crushed.  The  odor  from  a  crushed 
bee  excites  the  living  bees  and  makes  them  diffi- 
cult to  handle. 

Soon  after  hiving  the  bees  resume  their 
normal  duties.  The  queen  begins  to  lay  eggs 
and  the  workers  store  honey  in  anticipation  of 
the  new  brood.  Extra  frames  should  now  be 
placed  for  the  storage  of  honey.  If  there  were 
incomplete  supers  on  the  parent  hive,  these 
should  be  lifted  over  on  the  new  hive. 

The  departing  swarm  leaves  behind  several 
queen  cells  which  will  hatch  in  a  few  days.  All 
but  one  of  these  will  be  destroyed  by  the  workers. 

Two  or  three  days  after  the  remaining  queen  bee  has  been  fertilized  she 
begins  to  lay  eggs  and  the  colony  resumes  its  normal  routine. 

How  to  Prevent  Swarming. — A  reasonable  amount  of  swarming  is 
desirable,  as  in  this  manner  new  colonies  are  started.  However,  much 
swarming  weakens  the  colonies.  Weak  colonies  do  not  store  an  abundance 
of  honey  or  winter  well.  Neither  do  they  resist  moths  and  disease.  An 
overcrowded  colony  is  the  most  common  cause  of  swarming.  As  a  pre- 
ventive, plenty  of  room  should  be  kept  in  the  hive  by  removing  the 
honey  supply  often  and  furnishing  extra  supers.  The  hives  should  be 
kept  well  shaded  and  ventilated. 

One  queen  to  a  colony  is  the  rule.  Too  many  queens  cause  swarming. 
If  the  queen  cells  are  carefully  watched  and  cut  out,  the  number  can  be 
regulated.  The  queen  cells  are  readily  recognized  by  the  keeper,  as  they 

1  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    Farmers'  Bulletin  447. 


QUEEN  CELLS.1 


106  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

are  larger  than  any  other  cells.  They  are  rough  on  the  outside  and  hang 
vertically  on  the  comb,  having  much  the  shape  of  a  peanut.  The  supply 
of  queens  should  not  be  entirely  cut  off,  however,  as  a  vigorous  colony 
needs  requeening  at  least  once  in  two  years. 

Artificial  swarming  is  sometimes  resorted  to  by  dividing  an  over- 
crowded colony  and  furnishing  a  new  queen  to  the  queenless  portion. 
This  process  is  expedient,  however,  only  after  indications  of  swarming 
are  observed.  Otherwise,  the  bees  may  swarm  naturally  later  on. 

Clipping  the  queen's  wings  to  prevent  her  flying  is  sometimes  resorted 
to  to  prevent  swarming.  In  this  event,  she  will  be  found  near  the  hive 
when  the  swarm  issues  and  can  be  recaptured  and  put  into  a  new  hive.  The 
parent  colony  should  be  removed  and  the  new  hive  put  in  its  place.  The 
swarming  bees  will  then  enter  the  new  hive.  The  bees  afield  at  the  time 
of  swarming  will  also  return  to  the  new  hive,  thus  strengthening  the  new 
colony  and  relieving  the  congestion  of  the  parent  colony.  The  same 
shifting  of  hives  should  take  place  in  event  of  a  natural  swarming. 

Wintering  of  Bees. — Queens  showing  lack  of  vitality  as  winter 
approaches  should  be  replaced,  in  order  that  the  colony  may  begin  the 
inactive  period  with  young  and  vigorous  bees.  Cellar  wintering  is  not 
advisable  unless  under  the  direction  of  an  experienced  bee  keeper.  The 
dangers  from  moths,  sweat  and  other  bee  troubles  make  the  practice 
doubtful.  A  dry,  well-ventilated  cellar  with  an  even  temperature  is 
imperative. 

Throughout  the  South,  where  the  winters  are  mild,  no  packing  is 
needed  for  outside  wintering.  The  entrance  should  be  closed  enough, 
however,  to  keep  out  cold  drafts  and  prevent  the  entrance  of  mice  and 
other  enemies.  Enough  space  must  be  left  for  the  passage  of  the  bees. 

In  the  North  the  hives  must  be  well  packed  to  retain  the  heat  gener- 
ated by  the  bees.  Heavy  building  paper  tacked  around  the  hive,  leaving 
the  entrance  open,  makes  a  good  winter  protection  for  bees.  A  piece  of 
burlap,  tacked  over  the  front  of  the  hive  and  hanging  over  the  entrance, 
makes  a  good  shield  from  snow  and  wind.  This  may  be  lifted  on  fair  days 
to  permit  the  passage  of  the  bees.  Dark  wrapping  paper  should  be  avoided, 
as  it  absorbs  the  rays  of  the  sun.  This  creates  a  rise  in  temperature  within 
the  hive,  resulting  in  too  much  bee  activity.  Dampness  is  more  fatal 
than  cold  to  bees.  It  is  advisable  to  place  burlap  or  other  absorbent 
material  on  top  of  the  frames  to  absorb  the  dampness  which  otherwise 
might  condense  and  dampen  the  cluster  of  bees. 

Bee  Feeding. — A  colony  of  bees  should  enter  the  winter  with  from 
25  to  40  pounds  of  honey  stored  for  food.  The  quantity  depends  upon 
the  length  and  severity  of  the  winter. 

Fall  and  spring  feeding  is  often  resorted  to  in  order  to  continue  activity 
in  the  colony  late  in  the  season  and  stimulate  it  early  in  the  spring.  Honey 
from  unknown  sources  should  not  be  fed,  on  account  of  introducing 
disease.  Syrup  made  from  granulated  sugar  makes  a  satisfactory  food. 


BEES  107 

A  small  pan  filled  with  shavings  or  excelsior  saturated  with  the  syrup 
may  be  placed  on  top  of  the  frames. 

Hives. — There  are  many  good  hives  on  the  market,  but  the  one  most 
widely  used  is  the  Langstroth  hive.  Unless  one  is  skilled  in  making  hives, 
it  is  best  to  purchase  them  ready-made.  All  hives  in  the  apiary  should 
be  of  the  same  style  and  size,  so  that  the  frames  are  interchangeable. 

Foundation  Combs. — Foundation  combs  should  be  furnished  either 
as  starters  or  as  entire  sheets.  The  finished  product  will  then  be  beauti- 
fully uniform.  If  the  bees  are  left  to  furnish  their  own  wax,  much  time 
is  consumed  and  the  resulting  comb  is  irregular.  Full  sheets  of  foundation 
produce  the  finest  quality  of  comb.  When  one  super  is  half  full  or  more, 
it  should  be  raised  and  an  empty  one  put  under  it.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  furnish  too  many  sections  at  once  or  some  will  be  left  unfinished. 

Handling  and  Marketing. — In  handling  the  honey  combs,  care  must 
be  taken  to  keep  the  frames  in  a  perpendicular  position.  If  placed  on 
their  sides,  the  combs  will  be  broken.  The  same  caution  applies  in  packing 
for  market  or  in  handling  foundation  or  brood  frames. 

Honey  should  not  be  stored  in  a  cool,  damp  cellar,  but  kept  in  a  warm, 
dry  room.  Honey  taints  easily  and  care  must  be  taken  to  use  as  little 
smoke  as  possible  in  the  hives  in  handling  the  bees. 

The  home  market  is  the  best  for  the  small  honey  producer.  The 
product  deteriorates  rapidly  in  shipping,  and  much  care  is  needed  to  pack, 
so  as  to  ship  without  loss.  Unless  handled  in  large  quantities  the  added 
expense  of  packing  will  offset  the  higher  price  at  a  distant  market. 

Wax  from  extracted  honey  and  that  scraped  from  frames  can  be 
melted  and  made  into  beeswax.  Beeswax  not  only  has  a  market  value 
as  wax,  but  if  sent  to  a  foundation  factory,  new  foundations  can  be  made 
from  it  at  a  cost  much  less  than  the  purchasing  of  new  foundations. 

Diseases  of  Bees. — Moth  is  not  a  disease,  but  is  a  common  enemy 
of  the  bee.  The  presence  of  moth  denotes  a  weak  colony,  for  a  strong 
colony  will  destroy  moth  webs  and  keep  them  out.  Once  in,  not  much 
can  be  done  save  to  so  strengthen  the  colony,  that  it  rids  itself  of  the 
moth. 

Foul  brood  is  the  most  common  bee  disease.  It  is  a  germ  disease, 
much  to  be  dreaded,  as  it  spreads  rapidly  from  one  apiary  to  the  other, 
the  first  trace  is  noticeable  in  the  grubs.  They  turn  yellow  and  stretch 
out  in  their  cells  instead  of  being  white  and  curled  up.  Later  a  stench 
arises  from  the  hive.  Drastic  measures  must  be  taken  at  once  to  keep  the 
disease  from  spreading.  The  bees  should  be  removed  to  a  clean  hive  with- 
out comb  and  kept  for  thirty-six  hours  with  the  hive  closed.  At  the  end 
of  that  time  they  may  be  put  into  a  new  hive  with  clean  comb  and  a  fertile 
queen.  Sugar  syrup  must  be  furnished  them  for  a  time.  The  infected  hive 
and  all  its  parts  must  be  burned. 

So  serious  has  this  disease  become  that  many  states  have  passed 
laws  governing  its  control,  and  provide  inspectors  to  see  that  the  laws 


108 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


are  enforced.     It  is  to  a  bee  keeper's  advantage  to  co-operate  in  every 
way  possible  with  these  inspectors  in  controlling  this  disease. 

REFERENCES 
"Bee  Keeping."     Phillips. 
"How  to  Keep  Bees  for  Front."     Lyon. 
"Bee  Book."     Biggie. 
Canadian  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletins: 


213. 
233. 


Bee  Diseases.7 
'Natural  Swarming  of  Bees;  How  to  Prevent." 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Bulletin  14. 
Farmers'  Bullet  ns,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 

442.      '  Treatment  of  Bee  Diseases. ' ' 

447.      'Bees." 

503.      'Comb  Honey." 

652.      'Honey  and  Its  Uses  in  the  Home." 

695 .      '  Outdoor  Wintering  of  Bees. ' ' 


"Diseases  of  Bees.' 


PART  II 

DAIRY  FARMING 

(Dairy  Husbandry) 


109 


CHAPTER    10 
THE  DAIRY  HERD;  ITS  SELECTION  AND  IMPROVEMENT 

BY  F.  S.  PUTNEY 
Assistant  Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry,  The  Pennsylvania  State  College 

The  dairy  cow  of  today  has  been  so  long  domesticated  that  it  is 
impossible  to  identify  her  exact  origin.  Several  possible  origins  have  been 
written  about,  but  one  thing  we  are  sure  of  is  that  the  original  cow  gave 
milk  only  for  her  young  for  a  few  months.  The  modern  dairy  herd  is  the 
result  of  selection  and  improvement  by  man. 

Scrubs,  Grades,  Crosses  and  Pure-Breds. — A  dairy  herd  which  is  the 
result  of  accident  and  which  has  never  been  improved  is  called  a  common 
or  scrub  herd.  Such  a  herd  usually  has  the  blood  of  several  breeds,  but  has 
been  bred  without  thought.  Occasionally  a  scrub  dairy  cow  is  profitable, 
but  it  is  rare  indeed  to  find  a  scrub  herd  that  is  profitable.  A  large  per- 
centage of  the  dairy  cattle  in  the  country  today  are  high-grades.  A  grade 
animal  carries  over  50  per  cent  of  the  blood  of  some  particular  breed.  The 
pure-bred  sire  is  now  believed  to  be  an  essential  of  a  good  dairy  herd,  hence 
the  result  is  that  most  of  the  cows  are  now  high-grade,  carrying  over  75 
per  cent  of  the  blood  of  one  breed.  A  cross-bred  animal  has  the  blood  of 
two  pure-bred  animals  of  different  breeds  in  its  veins.  Such  breeding  is 
good  to  produce  vitality,  but  is  not  good  for  milk  production;  especially 
is  this  true  in  the  crossing  of  such  distinct  breeds  as  the  Holstein-Friesian 
and  the  Jersey.  Comparatively  few  pure-bred  dairy  herds  exist.  However, 
the  number  is  sufficient  to  permit  of  every  one  owning  a  pure-bred  sire, 
and  the  number  of  pure-bred  animals  is  on  the  increase.  A  pure-bred 
animal  does  not  have  the  blood  of  any  other  breed  since  the  founding  of 
that  breed. 

Value  of  Pedigrees. — A  pedigree  is  a  list  of  the  names  and  registry 
numbers  of  the  ancestry  of  an  animal.  A  dairy  farmer  who  keeps  pure- 
bred animals  should  exercise  care  in  keeping  his  animals  registered  in  the 
herd-book  of  the  breed  association.  This  is  profitable  because  pure-bred 
animals  sell  better  than  grade  animals,  as  the  offspring  are  more  uniform, 
especially  in  type  and  color.  The  latter  fact  adds  a  great  deal  to  the 
selling  price.  Further,  the  pure-bred  dairy  animals  have  been  developed 
to  higher  milk  production  than  any  other  class  of  farm  animals  and  natu- 
rally the  dairyman  is  willing  to  pay  for  their  production  ability.  The  more 
high  producing  animals  in  the  ancestry  of  an  animal,  the  better  is  that 
pedigree. 

Ill 


112  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

Breed  Differences. — Within  dairy  cattle  are  several  definite  strains 
of  a  special  type.  These  definite  strains  are  called  breeds.  Some  breeds 
have  been  developed  for  the  large  amount  of  milk  they  give,  other  breeds 
for  the  large  percentage  of  fat  which  the  milk  contains.  The  size  of  the 
different  breeds  also  varies  a  great  deal.  These  breeds  are  quite  largely 
the  result  of  conditions  that  exist  in  different  countries.  Great  as  is  the 
difference  in  the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  the  milk  and  size  of  the  breeds, 
the  individual  variations  within  a  breed  are  nearly  as  great. 

The  following  table,  from  Bulletin  No.  114  of  the  Pennsylvania  Experi- 
ment Station,  shows  the  difference  in  percentage  of  fat  of  breeds : 

Per  cent. 

All  Jerseys  or  Guernseys  of  high-grade 5.0 

Mixed  herd  with  some  Jersey  or  Guernsey  animals 4.5 

Common  mixed  herd 4.0 

Mixed  herd  with  some  Holstein  animals 3.5 

All  Holsteins 3.0 

A  Standard  of  Production  Necessary. — In  order  to  select  and  improve 
animals  for  the  dairy  herd,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  standard  of  production. 
The  standard  is,  of  course,  the  lowest  limit  for  profitable  production.  Since 
production  of  milk  varies  with  the  age  of  the  animal,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a  standard  for  the  first  few  lactation  periods.  A  heifer  with  first  calf 
usually  gives  about  70  per  cent  of  her  future  production  as  a  mature  cow. 
A  cow  makes  her  maximum  production  at  about  seven  years  of  age.  The 
standard  of  production  varies  with  each  community,  but  in  a  very  general 
way,  where  up-to-date  dairying  is  followed,  a  cow  should  produce  between 
6000  and  8000  pounds  of  milk  and  250  to  300  pounds  of  fat  to  stay  in 
the  herd. 

Individual  Selection. — If  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  standard  of  produc- 
tion for  each  cow,  it  is  equally  necessary  to  have  some  way  of  selecting 
animals  that  should  come  up  to  this  standard.  This  will  be  discussed  in 
the  paragraphs  on  Records  which  follow.  In  order  to  improve  a  herd 
properly,  one  must  keep  more  than  records  of  production.  The  individuals 
must  be  selected  for  size,  vigor  and  trueness  to  type.  This  selection  must 
begin  with  the  calf.  Only  calves  of  the  right  type  and  vigor  should  be 
raised.  Size  in  the  animal  is  important,  but  vigor  is  even  more  essential. 
Vigor  and  lung  capacity  are  essential  to  enable  the  cow  to  resist  all  the 
diseases  to  which  the  dairy  cow  is  heir.  It  is  desirable  to  raise  farm 
animals  that  have  shown  prolificness,  as  this  quality  is  reproduced  to  a 
marked  degree  in  dairy  animals.  Having  decided  to  raise  a  particular 
breed,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  characteristics  of  that  breed  better  than 
any  other. 

In  starting  a  new  herd,  the  females  should  be  selected  for  uniformity 
of  type,  and  should  be  typical  of  the  breed  they  represent.  In  selecting 
a  bull,  some  breeders  prefer  one  that  is  strong,  where  the  females  in  the 
herd  are  weak.  If  possible,  this  is  a  good  practice.  The  bull  should  always 


THE    DAIRY    HERD 


113 


be  from  as  long  a  line  of  high  producing  animals  as  is  possible  to  secure. 
In  starting  a  herd,  do  not  allow  passing  fads  to  have  undue  weight.  To 
illustrate,  the  Jersey  cattle  have  been  greatly  hurt  by  the  solid  color  fad 
that  went  over  the  country.  The  breed  was  not  solid  colored  at  its  founda- 
tion, and  whatever  fad  comes  into  a  herd  after  it  has  been  founded  reduces 
the  number  of  animals  to  select  from  for  production  and  hence  weakens  the 
herd  instead  of  strengthening  it.  The  Guernsey  fad  of  light-colored  noses 
and  the  white  color  of  the  Holstein-Friesian  and  Ayrshires  are  illustrations 


16 


A  TYPICAL  Cow,  MARKED  TO  SHOW  POINTS  IN  JUDGING.  1 

1— Head.  2— Muzzle.  3— Nostril.  4— Face.  5— Eye.  6— Forehead.  7— Horn. 
8— Ear.  9— Cheek.  10— Throat.  11— Neck.  12— Withers.  13— Back.  14— Loins. 
15— Hip  Bone.  16— Pelvic  Arch.  17— Rump.  18— Tail.  19— Switch.  20— Chest. 
21— Brisket.  *  22— Dewlap.  23— Shoulder.  24— Elbow.  25— Forearm.  26— Knee. 
27— Ankle.  28— Hoof.  29— Heart  Girth.  30— Side  or  Barrel.  31— Belly.  32— Flank. 
33— Milk  Vein.  34— Fore  Udder.  35— Hind  Udder.  36— Teats.  37— Upper  Thigh. 
38— Stifle.  39— Twist.  40— Leg  or  Gaskin.  41— Hock.  42— Shank.  43— Dew  Claw. 

of  this  fad.  In  order  to  select  animals  wisely,  one  should  be  a  good  judge 
of  the  breed  in  which  he  is  interested. 

Records. — While  a  breeder  can  select  cows  by  the  eye  for  many  good 
and  desirable  points,  the  only  real  test  of  a  dairy  cow  is  the  record  of  her 
milk  and  butter-fat  yield.  This  should  be  kept  for  every  year  that  a  cow 
stays  in  the  herd.  If  the  farmer  has  the  time,  he  should  keep  other  records, 
such  as  list  of  offspring,  feed  records  and  the  like.  The  greatest  improve- 
ment is  possible  only  when  complete  records  have  been  kept. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  production  of  a  cow,  a  pair  of  scales,  a  Bab- 
cock  testing  outfit  and  milk  sheets  are  necessary.  The  most  popular 
scale  today  is  the  Chatillon  Improved  Spring  Balance,  which  can  be  hung 

i  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    B.  A.  1. 15th  Report. 


114  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

in  some  handy  place  in  the  barn  or  milk  room.  The  two  hands  on  the 
dial  enable  one  to  read  the  amount  of  milk  directly.  The  milk  sheet  can 
be  made  for  the  month,  week  or  any  convenient  length  of  period.  The 
monthly  record  is  the  most  popular.  It  is  desirable  to  have  a  space  for 
tabulating  ten-day  periods  for  the  reason  that  grain  is  usually  fed  in 
accordance  with  the  yield  of  milk.  The  amount  fed  should  be  adjusted 
at  least  as  often  as  every  ten  days.  Some  adjust  it  every  week,  but  when 
added  for  ten  days  the  amount  can  be  read  directly  without  division. 

Records  show  that  about  one-third  of  the  cows  in  the  United  States 
are  "  boarders,"  or  cows  that  do  not  even  pay  for  their  feed.  When  it 
is  remembered  that  so  many  cows  are  unprofitable,  and  that  if  records  are 
not  kept,  the  daughters  of  these  same  unprofitable  cows  will  be  retained  in 
the  herd,  and  in  turn  more  than  likely  become  unprofitable,  the  value  of 
records  in  dairy  herd  improvement  is  readily  understood.  Records  show 
that  one-third  of  the  dairy  cows  in  the  country  should  be  killed.  The  net 
profits  of  the  herds  remaining  would  then  be  greater  than  is  now 
the  case. 

Cow-Testing  Association  Records. — Since  it  takes  time  to  keep 
records,  groups  of  farmers  find  it  economical  to  organize  and  employ  a 
man  to  keep  records  for  them.  This  man  is  called  a  supervisor,  and  his 
services  enable  a  group  of  both  small  and  large  farmers  to  practice  selection 
based  on  production.  Since  the  supervisor  must  visit  each  farm  at  least 
one  day  in  a  month,  only  about  twenty-five  farmers  can  co-operate  in 
the  hiring  of  one  man.  A  supervisor  can  be  had  for  from  $500  to  $600  a 
year  with  board  and  room.  If  these  twenty-five  farms  keep  500  cows, 
the  expense  of  keeping  records  by  the  supervisor  method  is  less  than  though 
the  owners  paid  themselves  for  the  time  that  they  would  take  to  keep 
the  same  records.  The  supervisor  weighs  all  feed  given  to  the  cows  during 
the  day  on  which  he  visits  the  farm.  From  this  data  he  figures  the  cost 
of  the  feed  by  the  month.  In  the  same  way  he  weighs  the  milk  from  each 
cow  and  tests  it  for  butter-fat.  This  enables  him  to  calculate  the  pro- 
duction for  a  month.  He  figures  for  the  owner  the  value  of  the  product 
from  each  cow  for  the  month  at  the  price  that  the  owner  is  receiving. 

Each  cow-testing  association  is  bound  together  by  by-laws,  contracts 
and  some  sort  of  articles  of  confederation.  In  some  cases  the  association 
buys  feed  in  carload  lots  so  as  to  reduce  the  cost  to  the  members.  Such 
an  association  must  be  gathered  from  a  community  covering  a  small  area. 
Some  cow-testing  associations  stretch  over  considerable  territory. 

Bull  Associations. — One  of  the  outgrowths  of  the  cow-testing  associa- 
tion is  the  bull  association.  These  associations  are  often  formed  from  a 
group  of  men  within  the  cow-testing  association.  It  is  necessary  that 
the  members  keep  the  same  breed  of  stock.  These  men  own  a  bull,  or 
several  bulls,  together.  The  bull  is  kept  in  the  community  as  long  as  he 
is  a  good  producer.  A  good  producing  bull  is  one  that  is  a  sure  getter, 
and  whose  heifer  calves  prove  to  be  better  producers  as  cows  than  their 


THE    DAIRY    HERD 


115 


dams.  Such  a  bull  should  be  given  a  herd  as  long  as  he  will  breed. 
Through  the  bull  associations,  it  is  often  possible  to  bring  into  a  community 
a  bull  of  better  breeding  than  any  single  member  of  the  community  could 
finance  alone.  It  is  not  the  cost  of  the  bull  that  determines  its  value,  but 
rather  the  producing  ability  of  his  daughters. 

The  bull  association,  to  be  of  value,  needs  records,  and  the  cow- 
testing  association  assures  the  records.  They  work  well  together. 

Advanced  Registry  Records. — Any  daughter  or  son  of  a  registered 
dam  and  sire  can  be  registered  in  the  herd-books  of  that  breed  association. 
Unfortunately,  many  registered  animals  are  no  better  producers  than 
scrubs.  In  order  to  improve  the  animals  within  a  breed,  the  different 
breed  associations  have  started  Advanced  Registry  Requirements.  These 


A  GOOD  DAIRY  HERD.1 
Exercise  is  beneficial  to  the  health  of  the  cows. 

requirements  are  based  upon  performance,  and  hence  only  worthy  animals 
find  their  names  on  its  lists.  The  different  breeders  have  different  names 
for  the  books  in  which  such  animals  are  listed,  but  all  serve  the  same 
purpose.  Representatives  from  the  different  experiment  stations  vouch 
for  the  production  of  the  animals  after  personal  visits.  Such  records 
have  done  much  toward  developing  the  modern,  wonderful  milking  cow. 
Pure-bred  sires  should  have  some  near  relatives  whose  names  appear  in 
the  advanced  registry  of  the  particular  breed.  All  breeders  of  pure-bred 
stock  should  be  encouraged  to  make  advanced  registry  tests  so  as  to  improve 
the  sale  of  bull  calves  from  their  herds. 

The  Bull  is  Half  the  Herd.— It  is  one  of  the  sayings  of  breeders  that 
"the  bull  is  half  the  herd."     Where  in-breeding  is  practiced,  he  is  even 

1  Courtesy  of  the  Department  of  Dairy  Husbandry,  Pennsylvania  State  College. 


I 


1  From  Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  177. 


116 


THE    DAIRY    HERD  117 

more  than  half.  Even  if  the  cows  are  scrubs,  there  is  no  place  in  the  herd 
for  a  grade  or  scrub  bull.  Only  a  pure-bred  bull  should  head  a  herd  of 
cows.  The  bull  should  possess  quality  and  type  and  come  from  a  long 
line  of  good  producing  females.  In  order  to  be  sure  that  a  bull  can  improve 
a  good  herd  of  cows,  only  tested  bulls  should  be  used.  In  order  to  test 
a  bull  he  should  be  bred  when  young  to  a  few  of  the  good  cows  in  the  herd 
and  the  resulting  heifer  calves  watched.  If  they  are  better  than  their 
dams,  a  good  herd  sire  is  indicated. 

Professor  W.  J.  Fraser,  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  calculates  that 
in  a  herd  of  thirty-five  cows  it  costs  $3  per  heifer  more  to  have  them  sired 
by  a  pure-bred  bull  than  by  a  scrub.  This,  then,  is  the  total  cost  of  pro- 
viding each  heifer  calf  with  one  good  parent.  If  this  same  heifer  calf 
produces  only  three  pounds  of  milk  more  a  day  than  her  dam,  this,  at  80 
cents  a  hundred  pounds,  means  that  in  six  years  of  milking,  for  300  days 
a  year,  she  would  bring  the  owner  $43  more  than  her  dam.  On  this  basis 
the  rate  of  interest  on  the  investment  is  better  than  anything  else  on  the 
farm.  Professor  Fraser  believes  his  figures  to  be  conservative. 

The  University  of  Missouri  has  a  Jersey  herd  that  has  had  the  fortune 
of  having  some  excellent  bulls  at  its  head  and  the  misfortune  of  having 
had  some  sires  of  very  poor  quality.  To  illustrate:  ten  daughters  from 
Lome  of  Meridale,  one  of  their  bulls,  would  have  produced  in  six  years 
$900  more  than  their  dams,  while  ten  daughters  of  Missouri  Rooter  in  the 
same  time  would  have  produced  $980  less  than  their  dams.  This  shows 
that  two  farmers  of  equal  ability  living  on  farms  side  by  side,  and  of  the 
same  size,  would  differ  $2000  in  wealth  at  the  end  of  six  years  with  only 
ten  daughters  from  such  different  character  bulls.  The  necessity  of 
records  is  seen  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  "bull  is  half  the  herd." 

Buying  Cows  or  Raising  Calves. — One  cannot  build  up  a  dairy  herd 
and  continue  to  improve  it  by  buying  cows.  The  only  way  to  improve 
a  herd  is  by  raising  calves  that  are  better  than  their  dams.  Near  large 
cities  it  is  a  common  practice  to  buy  cows  to  replenish  the  herd.  In  this 
country,  far  from  large  cities,  an  excess  of  calves  is  raised.  If  all  the  cows 
in  this  far-removed  section  had  good  records  this  method  could  continue. 
The  farmer  who  gets  his  herd  free  from  tuberculosis  and  contagious  abor- 
tion can  hope  to  keep  it  so,  providing  he  raises  his  own  calves.  It  can 
never  be  done  if  he  buys  cows. 

The  new-born  calf  must  be  well  fed  and  made  to  grow.  The  feeding 
of  the  calf  undoubtedly  has  some  effect  on  the  later  usefulness  of  the  cow. 
A  stunted  calf  will  never  be  as  good  a  cow  as  though  she  had  never  been 
stunted. 

For  purposes  of  record  it  is  necessary  that  every  calf  be  marked  before 
being  taken  from  its  mother.  This  often  seems  unnecessary,  but  when 
the  young  heifer  spends  her  first  summer  on  pasture,  the  owner  is  liable 
to  forget  the  particular  animal  unless  he  visits  the  pasture  frequently,  or 
unless  the  heifer  has  some  very  distinguishing  mark.  If  the  habit  of 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


putting  a  tag  in  the  ear,  or  some  other  good  system  of  marking  is  estab- 
lished, trouble  is  avoided. 

The  calf  should  be  fed  so  as  not  to  develop  scours  or  disorders  of  any 
kind.  The  best  way  is  to  feed  the  mother's  milk  for  a  few  days,  and  see 
that  all  milk  is  warmed  to  blood  heat.  It  should  be  fed  only  from  clean 
pails.  For  the  first  few  days  it  is  well  to  feed  three  times  a  day;  after 
that,  twice  a  day  is  sufficient.  The  calf  should  be  fed  liberally,  but  more 
danger  comes  from  over-feeding  than  under-feeding.  Modern  milk  sub- 
stitutes grow  good  dairy  calves. 

Developing  the  Young  Animal.  —  Dairy  cows  are  developed  success- 
fully in  several  different  ways.  The  essential  point  is  that  the  bone  must 
be  nearly  grown  at  the  time  of  dropping  the  first  calf.  Some  feeders  simply 
give  large  amounts  of  roughage  to  heifer  calves  during  the  winter  after 
weaning  from  milk.  In  this  way  the  frame  grows,  but  little  fat  is  put  on. 
Other  feeders  give  some  grain,  up  to  four  pounds  per  animal  per  day,  and 
this  assures  the  heifer  being  in  good  flesh.  When  pastures  are  excellent, 
the  first  method  is  all  right,  but  when  pastures  are  only  good  or  fair,  better 
results  are  obtained  by  feeding  some  grain  to  heifers.  A  well-developed 
growing  heifer  gives  more  milk  than  one  poorly  developed,  since  she 
requires  less  feed  for  growth. 

Open  Stables  for  Heifers.  —  Heifers  over  one  year  old  are  today  kept 
in  open  sheds  facing  the  south.  It  is  believed  that  this  open-air  method 
develops  a  stronger  constitution  and  more  hardiness,  two  qualities  of 
great  value  in  warding  off  disease  later.  This  method  of  housing  is  much 
cheaper  than  housing  in  expensive  closed  quarters,  and  the  results  are 
at  least  equally  good. 

REFERENCE 
Nebraska  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  149.     "Raising  the  Dairy  Calf." 


CHAPTER    11 

DAIRY  HERD  MANAGEMENT 

BY  C.  W.  LARSON 
Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry,  The  Pennsylvania  State  College 

The  dairy  cow  is  more  sensitive  to  her  treatment  than  any  other  of  our 
productive  animals.  By  care  and  breeding  she  has  been  developed  into  an 
animal  of  habit,  and  upon  the  care  she  receives  depends  largely  the  profits 
of  the  herd.  The  feed  is  an  important  item  in  the  cost  of  milk  production, 
but  the  systems  practiced  also  materially  affect  the  profits  of  the  herd. 
It  is  no  longer  profitable  to  keep  a  cow  all  the  year  for  the  small  amount 
of  milk  that  she  produces  during  the  summer  months  while  on  pasture. 
The  cheapest  method  of  keeping  a  herd  is  not  always  the  most  profitable. 
This  chapter  deals  only  with  the  heifers  from  breeding  time. 

Age  to  Breed. — The  age  at  which  a  heifer  should  be  bred  depends 
largely  upon  her  size,  but  in  general,  an  animal  that  has  grown  well  can  be 
bred  to  have  her  first  calf  when  two  years  of  age.  During  the  last  three 
months  of  the  gestation  period  a  heifer  grows  very  little,  so  that  it  is  not 
advisable  to  breed  a  small  heifer  too  young,  and  some  prefer  to  wait  until 
the  heifer  is  two  and  one-half  years  old  before  she  has  a  calf.  A  heifer  bred 
too  young  will  not  attain  a  large  size,  which  is  desirable  in  a  dairy  cow. 

Gestation  Period. — The  gestation  period  of  a  cow  is  from  280  to  285 
days.  It  is  a  gqod  practice  to  keep  a  record  of  service,  so  that  the  cow  can 
be  properly  taken  care  of  before  calving  time. 

Regularity. — A  regular  routine  of  work  should  be  planned  for  the  herd 
so  that  the  cows  will  receive  the  same  treatment  each  day.  Any  disturb- 
ance or  irregularity  affects  both  the  amount  and  quality  of  milk.  The 
cows  should  be  milked  at  the  same  time  each  day.  The  milker  should  start 
at  the  same  end  of  the  row  and  be  as  regular  in  the  treatment  of  the  cows 
as  possible.  There  are  a  number  of  points  to  keep  in  mind  in  planning 
the  routine  of  the  cow  stable.  Grain  may  be  fed  before  milking,  but  hay 
should  not  be,  because  of  the  length  of  time  it  takes  to  eat  it  and  because 
of  the  dust  it  will  raise.  Silage  also  should  not  be  fed  immediately  before 
milking,  because  of  the  effect  in  the  flavor  of  the  milk.  The  stable  should 
be  cleaned  before  milking,  if  possible,  and  if  the  cows  are  kept  in  the  stable, 
the  grooming  should  also  be  done  before  milking.  The  cows  need  not  be 
watered  until  after  the  morning  feed  is  given.  Hay  should  be  fed  late  in 
the  evening. 

Care  of  Cow  at  Calving  Time. — A  cow  should  be  carefully  watched  and 
fed  during  calving  time.  She  should  be  provided  with  a  clean,  well-bedded 

119 


120 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


stall.  For  several  days  previous  to  calving  she  should  be  fed  a  bulky 
ration  and  one  that  is  laxative.  She  should  not  be  given  heavy  grains.  A 
mash  of  ground  oats  and  bran  is  good.  For  two  or  three  days  before  calving 
time  she  should  be  given  slightly  warmed  water.  Do  not  give  cold  water. 
After  two  or  three  days  the  cow  can  gradually  be  put  on  the  regular  grain 
and  roughage  feed,  but  the  feeding  should  not  be  too  heavy  to  start  with, 
Rest  for  Dairy  Cows. — It  is  desirable  to  give  a  cow  at  least  six  weeks 
of  rest  each  year.  Most  cows  dry  off  before  this  time,  but  occasionally 
persistent  milkers  give  a  considerable  supply  up  to  the  time  of  their  next 
calving.  When  this  is  allowed,  it  is  at  the  sacrifice  of  the  milk  in  the  next 


A    GOOD    COW    STABLE.1 

Convenience  in  arrangement,  ease  of  cleaning,  plenty  of  light  and  good  ventilation  are 
essential  to  the  health  of  cows  and  the  production  of  clean,  pure  milk. 

lactation  period,  and  also  sometimes  at  the  sacrifice  of  the  calf.  It  is  some- 
times difficult  to  dry  off  a  cow,  but  usually  by  cutting  down  the  grain  and 
giving  straw  or  timothy  hay  she  can  be  reduced  to  a  sufficient  amount  to  be 
safe  to  stop  milking  her.  It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  milk  once  a  day  for  a 
while  and  then  stop  altogether.  It  is  not  safe  to  stop  milking  her  if  she  is 
giving  too  much,  although  cows  producing  as  much  as  six  to  eight  quarts 
have  been  dried  off  without  injuring  them. 

Care  of  Cows  when  Dry. — A  cow  should  be  well  taken  care  of  when 
dry,  for  she  is  then  preparing  for  her  next  milking  period,  besides  growing 
the  calf.  Nearly  all  of  the  development  of  the  calf  takes  place  during  the 
last  few  weeks.  She  should  be  given  succulent  and  laxative  feeds  and  should 
be  well  fed. 

i  Courtesy  of  the  Department  of  Dairy  Husbandry,  Pennsylvania  State  College, 


DAIRY    HERD    MANAGEMENT  121 

Exercise. — Many  dairymen  believe  that  a  cow  receives  all  the  exercise 
she  needs  in  producing  milk,  but  on  many  farms  it  is  desirable  to  turn  the 
cows  out  for  a  part  of  the  day.  It  not  only  gives  a  better  opportunity  to 
clean  out  the  barn,  but  also  gives  the  cows  an  opportunity  to  rub  them- 
selves, and  their  feet  and  legs  keep  in  better  condition.  Too  much  exercise, 
of  course,  requires  energy  at  the  expense  of  milk  production.  Cows  that 
are  required  to  walk  long  distances  do  not  do  as  well  as  those  that  are 
more  confined.  Cows  should  not  be  turned  out  during  bad  weather  and 
exposed  to  rains  and  cold  winds. 

Grooming. — Cows  kept  in  the  stable  all,  or  nearly  all,  of  the  time 
should  be  carefully  groomed  at  least  once  a  day.  It  is  believed  by  many 
that  grooming  has  an  effect  upon  the  milk  flow.  Cows  seem  to  do  better 
for  having  been  groomed. 

Milking. — A  good  milker  has  a  fairly  rapid,  uniform  stroke  which  he 
continues  throughout  the  milking  period.  The  whole  hand  should  grip  the 
teat  and  the  pressure  should  come  from  the  whole  hand.  The  practice  of 
using  the  thumb  and  first  finger  is  not  recommended.  The  milking  of 
diagonal  teats  is  thought  to  give  best  results.  The  Hegelund  method  of 
the  manipulation  and  milking  has  been  found  to  stimulate  milk  production. 
A  cow  milked  by  this  process  gives  more  milk.  The  steps  are  described  as 
follows : 

" First  Manipulation:  The  right  quarters  of  the  udder  are  pressed 
against  each  other  (if  the  udder  is  very  large,  only  one  quarter  at  a  time  is 
taken)  with  the  left  hand  on  the  hind  quarter  and  the  right  hand  in  front 
on  the  fore  quarter,  the  thumbs  being  placed  on  the  outside  of  the  udder 
and  the  forefingers  in  the  division  between  the  two  halves  of  the  udder. 
The  hands  are  now  pressed  toward  each  other  and  at  the  same  time  lifted 
toward  the  body  of  the  cow.  This  pressing  and  lifting  is  repeated  three 
times,  the  milk  collected  in  the  milk  cistern  is  then  milked  out,  and  the 
manipulation  repeated  until  no  more  milk  is  obtained  in  this  way,  when  the 
left  quarters  are  treated  in  the  same  way. 

"Second  Manipulation:  The  glands  are  pressed  together  from  the 
side.  The  fore  quarters  are  milked  each  by  itself  by  placing  one  hand, 
with  fingers  spread,  on  the  outside  of  the  quarter  and  the  other  hand  in 
the  division  between  the  right  and  left  fore  quarters;  the  hands  are  pressed 
against  each  other  and  the  teat  then  milked.  When  no  more  milk  is 
obtained  by  this  manipulation,  the  hind  quarters  are  milked  by  placing 
a  hand  on  the  outside  of  each  quarter,  likewise  with  fingers  spread  and 
turned  upward,  but  with  the  thumb  just  in  front  of  the  hind  quarter. 
The  hands  are  lifted  and  grasped  into  the  gland  from  behind  and  from 
the  side,  after  which  they  are  lowered  to  draw  the  milk.  The  manipulation 
is  repeated  until  no  more  milk  is  obtained. 

" Third  Manipulation:  The  fore  teats  are  grasped  with  partly  closed 
hands  and  lifted  with  a  push  toward  the  body  of  the  cow,  both  at  the 
same  time,  by  which  method  the  glands  are  pressed  between  the  hands 


122  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

and  the  body;  the  milk  is  drawn  after  each  three  pushes.  When  the 
fore  teats  are  emptied,  the  hind  teats  are  milked  in  the  same  manner." 

Difficult  Milking. — Occasionally  cows  are  difficult  to  milk  because 
of  defective  teats.  Sometimes  the  openings  are  too  small,  in  which  case 
an  instrument  known  as  the  bistoury  may  be  used,  but  there  is  danger  of 
greatly  injuring  the  teat,  and  it  should  be  used  only  by  those  experienced 
in  its  use.  Only  with  especially  good  animals  does  it  pay  to  spend  much 
time  with  such  cows.  Sore  teats,  caused  sometimes  by  teats  becoming 
wet  and  exposed  to  the  cold,  can  best  be  treated  by  rubbing  them  with 
vaseline  or  some  antiseptic  grease.  A  cow  that  has  developed  the  kicking 
habit  is  a  great  annoyance.  Sore  teats  and  abuse,  however,  are  often  the 
cause.  Most  cows,  by  gentle  treatment  and  care  of  the  teats,  will  cause 
little  trouble.  Some,  howrever,  are  naturally  vicious,  but  these  are  few  in 
number.  A  strap  tied  around  the  body  of  the  cow  just  in  front  of  the 
udder,  and  drawn  fairly  tight,  will  prevent  most  cows  from  kicking.  A 
clamp  made  of  wood  with  two  straps,  long  enough  to  reach  around  the 
leg  of  the  cow,  will  prevent  her  from  bending  her  leg,  making  it  impossible 
for  her  to  kick. 

Abuse.— A  dairy  cow  should  always  be  handled  gently,  for  any  dis- 
turbances affect  her.  Loud  noises  or  any  unusual  disturbances  should 
be  avoided.  A  cow  should  never  be  struck  or  mistreated,  nor  should 
she  be  talked  to  in  a  loud  voice. 

Water  and  Salt. — A  cow  requires  considerable  salt,  and  this  should 
be  given  regularly.  One  practice  is  to  mix  it  with  the  grain,  but  the  maxi- 
mum requirements  should  not  be  given  in  this  way,  for  a  cow  may  be 
required  to  eat  more  than  she  wants  of  it.  A  little  in  the  grain  is  all  right, 
but  a  small  amount  should  be  given  regularly,  perhaps  once  a  week,  so 
that  she  can  get  all  she  wants.  A  cow  will  eat  about  one-half  pound  of 
salt  a  week. 

An  abundance  of  good  water  should  be  provided  for  dairy  animals. 
A  cow  producing  large  quantities  of  milk  will  consume  as  much  as  one 
hundred  pounds,  or  more,  per  day.  Heavy  milkers  should  be  watered 
twice  a  day.  The  water  should  not  be  too  cold,  but  at  the  same 
time  it  is  well  not  to  have  it  too  warm.  A  uniform  temperature  is 
desirable. 

Stabling. — With  most  large  dairy  herds  it  is  customary  to  have 
regular  stanchions  in  which  the  cows  can  all  be  tied  up  in  rows.  This 
seems  the  best  system  where  high-class  milk  is  being  produced.  For  the 
small  herd,  the  practice  of  allowing  the  cows  to  run  in  an  open  shed  is 
being  followed.  This  method  of  housing,  however,  makes  it  possible  to 
keep  the  cows  in  a  more  healthy  condition  and  to  produce  milk  more 
economically.  An  experiment  has  been  conducted  by  The  Pennsylvania 
State  College  of  housing  cattle  in  an  open  shed  as  compared  with  a  closed 
stable,  and  is  summarized  as  follows: 

"1.  From  the  data  presented  it  appears  that  cows  kept  under  an 


DAIRY    HERD    MANAGEMENT  123 

open  shed  have  keener  appetites  and  consume  more  roughage  than  those 
kept  in  stables. 

"2.  There  was  sufficient  protein  consumed  when  either  Van  Norman's 
or  Eckles'  Standard  was  used  to  account  for  the  yield  of  milk  in  addition 
to  maintenance. 

"3.  Figured  on  Eckles'  Standard,  there  was  a  slight  excess  of  energy 
consumed  above  maintenance  and  milk  production  the  first  two  years, 
and  a  small  deficiency  the  last  year.  When  computed  on  Van  Norman's 
Standard,  there  was  a  deficiency  in  energy  consumed  for  maintenance 
and  milk  production,  except  for  one  group  the  second  year. 

"4.  The  milk  yield  of  the  outside  group  decreased  more  rapidly  each 
winter  than  that  of  the  inside  group. 

"5.  Sudden  drops  in  atmospheric  temperature  caused  corresponding 
decreases  in  milk  yield  for  both  groups,  the  outside  group  having  a  slightly 
greater  decrease. 

"  6.  More  bedding  was  required  outside,  but  less  labor  was  necessary 
to  keep  the  animals  clean. 

"7.  Both  groups  finished  each  winter's  trial  in  good  health  with  the 
exception  of  one  that  reacted  to  the  tuberculin  test  in  April,  1914.  She 
had  shown  no  reaction  in  two  previous  tests.  The  hair  of  the  animals 
kept  outside  was  longer  and  coarser  the  first  two  winters.  The  third 
winter  this  was  noticeable  in  only  one  ainmal." 

Flies. — In  the  management  of  a  milking  herd,  the  problem  of  flies 
is  a  difficult  one.  Not  only  are  they  annoying  to  the  cow  and  the  milker, 
but  they  also  carry  disease.  They  should  be  reduced  to  as  small  a  number 
as  possible.  It  is  believed  that  they  do  not  travel  a  great  distance,  so  that 
a  farmer  may  have  them  fairly  well  under  his  control.  Manure  should 
not  be  allowed  to  accumulate,  and  if  it  does,  it  should  be  treated  with 
some  spray  or  disinfectant  that  will  kill  the  flies.  There  are  a  number  of 
sprays  on  the  market  that  can  be  used  for  killing  flies  in  the  barn.  Some 
have  found  traps  to  be  practical. 

Marking  the  Cow. — For  the  purpose  of  identification,  dairy  animals 
should  be  marked.  Some  have  a  system  of  clipping  the  ears  with  certain 
notches  to  represent  the  various  figures  and  thus  of  keeping  records. 
This,  however,  is  not  very  satisfactory.  An  ordinary  hog  ring  with  a 
metal  or  composition  tag  fastened  to  it  makes  a  satisfactory  marker. 
Occasionally  these  are  torn  out,  but  if  they  are  properly  put  in  and  the 
tag  is  small  and  round,  they  will  stay  a  long  time.  The  tattoo  is  also 
being  used  successfully  when  good  tattoo  material  is  used. 

Dehorning. — In  the  general  milking  herd  all  cows  should  be  dehorned. 
There  is  more  or  less  pain  connected  with  the  operation,  but  it  does  not, 
in  the  estimation  of  the  writer,  compare  with  the  pain  due  to  the  cows 
being  gored  day  after  day.  It  prevents  the  possibility  also  of  one  animal 
that  may  be  "boss"  depriving  others  of  their  rightful  share  of  food  and 
water.  The  dehorning,  however,  should  not  be  done  until  the  animal  has 


124 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


reached  the  age  of  two  years,  for  if  it  is  done  before  this,  growth  takes 
place  and  scurs  will  be  formed.  The  dehorning  should  be  done  in  cold 
weather  and  when  there  are  no  flies.  The  horns  should  be  cut  or  clipped 
as  quickly  as  possible. 

CARE  OF  THE  BULL 

A  young  bull  should  not  be  used  too  much  for  breeding  purposes. 
He  should  be  kept  growing  and  should  be  well  cared  for,  but  not  overfed. 
A  good,  thrifty  young  bull  may  breed  six  or  seven  cows  before  he  is  one 


LEADING  A  BULL. 


year  old  with  no  injury  to  him.  Even  during  the  second  year  he  should 
not  be  used  too  much.  Often  a  young  bull  is  injured  by  overuse.  A  cow 
should  be  served  only  once  during  a  period  of  heat.  A  bull  should  never 
be  allowed  to  run  with  the  herd,  but  should  be  kept  in  a  separate  inclosure. 
He  should  be  given  exercise  and  be  kept  out  in  the  open  as  much  as  possible. 
Where  two  bulls  are  needed  in  a  herd,  it  is  a  good  practice  to  dehorn  them 
and  then  turn  them  together,  or  even  train  them  to  drive.  A  yard  in  which 
a  bull  is  kept  should  be  strongly  fenced,  for  they  are  powerful,  and  once 
they  break  through  a  pen,  it  is  very  difficult  to  get  anything  that  will  hold 
them.  They  should  be  sheltered  from  the  winds  and  rain,  but  can  stand 
the  cold.  Bulls  sometimes  become  vicious,  due  to  treatment,  although 


1Courtesy  of  Orange-Judd  Company,  N.  Y.    From  "  The  Young  Farmer,"  by  Hunt. 


DAIRY    HERD     MANAGEMENT  125 

some  bulls  are  naturally  cross.  In  any  case,  great  care  must  be  take 
with  them.  They  should  never  be  trusted.  They  should  always  have 
a  ring  in  their  noses  and  be  led  by  a  stock  from  the  ring.  Bulls  seem  to 
know  when  a  man  is  afraid  and  are  more  apt  to  attack  such  a  one  than  one 
who  is  more  courageous.  A  bull  that  becomes  vicious  is  often  subdued 
by  being  thrown  with  a  rope.  He  then  learns  that  he  is  under  the  control 
of  man.  The  amount  of  service  that  a  bull  may  have  depends  upon  his 
age  and  condition.  During  the  second  year,  a  good,  thrifty  bull  can  be 
used  once  a  week.  A  mature  bull  may  serve  one  hundred  to  two  hundred 
cows  a  year  if  the  periods  are  distributed  well  throughout  the  year.  In 
general,  however,  because  of  the  variation  in  the  intervals  in  which  cows 
come  in  heat,  a  bull  should  be  provided  for  each  forty  to  fifty  cows. 

REFERENCES 

"Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production."     Eckles. 

Iowa  Expt.  Station  Circular  16.     "Care,  Feed  and  Management  of  the  Dairy  Herd." 

Minnesota  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  130.     "Feeding  Dairy  Cows." 


CHAPTER    12 
DAIRY  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 

BY  GEORGE  C.  HUMPHREY 
Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry,  University  of  Wisconsin 

Dairy  Breeds  Essential. — Choosing  a  dairy  breed  of  cattle  is  funda- 
mental to  successful  dairying.  The  modern  improved  breeds  of  dairy 
cattle  are  the  result  of  high  ideals,  carefully  laid  plans  and  systematic 
effort  on  the  part  of  many  generations  of  dairymen  who  realized  there 
were  great  possibilities  in  the  development  of  breeds  of  cattle  especially 
adapted  for  large  and  economical  production  of  milk  and  butter-fat. 
Cattle  which  are  true  representatives  of  the  recognized  dairy  breeds  are 
very  distinct  from  ordinary  native  cattle  and  cattle  of  the  improved  beef 
breeds,  both  in  conformation  and  production  of  milk.  They  also  tend  to 
reproduce  themselves  from  generation  to  generation  with  such  marked 
degree  of  uniformity  that  one  familiar  with  their  history  and  character- 
istics would  reject  any  other  kind  if  he  were  engaged  primarily  in  dairying. 
Natural  laws  that  govern  the  reproduction  of  plant  and  animal  life  and 
preserve  forms  of  like  character  from  generation  to  generation  and  the 
experience  of  a  vast  number  of  dairymen  teach  the  value  of  preserving  and 
utilizing  the  distinct  dairy  breeds  of  cattle  for  dairy  purposes. 

Dairy  Type  Common  to  All  Dairy  Breeds. — The  development  of  dairy 
breeds  has  established  a  distinct  dairy  type  that  is  naturally  correlated 
with  extensive  milk  production.  Dairy  type  refers  to  the  conformation 
and  peculiarities  of  the  body  that  are  characteristic  of  animals  capable  of 
producing  large  and  economical  yields  of  milk  and  includes  the  following: 

1.  Medium  to  large  size  of  body  for  the  breed. 

2.  Large  feed  capacity,  as  indicated  by  a  roomy  and  capacious  abdom- 

inal cavity,  a  large  mouth  and  sufficient  strength  of  body  to 
consume  and  utilize  a  large  quantity  of  feed. 

3.  Dairy  temperament  or  a  disposition  to  convert  the  larger  portion 

of  feed  consumed  into  milk  rather  than  body  flesh.  It  is 
indicated  by  the  absence  of  surplus  flesh  and  a  comparatively 
lean  and  refined  appearance  of  the  entire  body. 

4.  An  udder  that  is  large,  carried  well  up  to  the  body,  evenly  and 

normally  developed  in  all  quarters  and  of  good  quality. 

5.  A  strong,  healthy  flow  of  blood  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  giving 

vigor,  alertness  and  constitution.  These  characteristics  are 
indicated  by  prominent  facial,  udder  and  mammary  veins, 
abundant  secretions  in  the  ears,  skin  of  the  body  and  at  the, 
end  of  the  tail  and  a  coat  of  fine  straight  hair, 

126 


DAIRY  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 


127 


Ignorance  of  breeds  and  breeding  and  of  proper  feeding  and  manage- 
ment cause  a  great  many  cows  to  fall  below  the  standard  embodied  in  the 
foregoing  qualifications  for  dairy  type.  This  fact,  however,  is  no  argument 
against  the  merit  of  improved  breeds  and  should  not  cause  one  to  question 
the  value  of  well-established  dairy  breeds. 

Recognized  Dairy  Breeds  of  America. — Ayrshire,  Brown  Swiss, 
Guernsey,  Holstein-Friesian  and  Jersey  breeds  of  cattle  are  recognized  and 
have  been  exhibited  at  the  National  Dairy  Shows  of  America  as  specific 
dairy  breeds.  Dairy  cattle  of  the  Dutch  Belted,  French  Canadian  and 


A  TYPICAL  AYRSHIRE  Cow.    "Auchenbrain  Hattie." 
Medium  in  size,  usually  red  and  white,  horns  upturned  and  pointed. 

Kerry  breeds  are  bred  and  maintained  in  America  in  comparatively  small 
numbers.  The  unimportance  of  these  breeds  in  well-developed  dairy 
districts,  however,  does  not  warrant  more  than  mention  and  a  very  brief 
discussion  of  them  in  the  limited  space  of  this  article. 

AYRSHIRE   CATTLE 

Origin  and  Development. — The  County  of  Ayr  in  southwestern 
Scotland  is  the  native  home  of  the  Ayrshire  breed.  The  land  in  this  section 
is  rolling  and  more  or  less  rough,  the  climate  moist  and  the  winters  extremely 
cold,  except  for  being  somewhat  tempered  by  the  Irish  Sea.  The  hills 


128  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

produce  rolling  pastures  in  most  parts,  while  the  better  lands  grow  grain 
crops  and  grass  in  abundance.  The  conditions,  on  the  whole,  demand  a 
hard  yrustling  breed  of  dairy  cattle,  and  Ayrshires  have  been  developed  to 
suit  the  needs  of  their  native  country.  Early  history  records  the  use  of 
several  different  breeds  of  cattle  which  undoubtedly  have  contributed  to 
the  establishment  of  the  Ayrshire  breed.  Teeswater,  Shorthorn,  Dutch, 
Lincoln,  Hereford,  Devon  and  West  Highland  breeds  are  mentioned  by 
various  authors  as  having  been  used.  Whatever  the  true  origin  may  have 
been,  the  breed  has  been  bred  pure  for  many  years,  and  its  character 
fixed  after  the  manner  of  other  pure  breeds  of  livestock  developed  by  the 
Scotch  people.  The  production  of  a  breed  of  cattle  suited  to  the  condition 
of  environment  of  that  country,  and  especially  adapted  for  the  production 
of  large  yields  of  milk,  was  the  standard  which  guided  the  breeders  in  fixing 
the  characteristics  of  this  breed.  The  breed  has  found  favor  in  other 
countries  and  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  all  dairy  sections  of  America, 
especially  in  the  New  England  states  and  the  provinces  of  Canada. 

Characteristics  of  Ayrshire  Cattle. — Ayrshire  cattle  are  medium  in 
size.  Cows  should  weigh  on  the  average  1000  pounds  and  bulls  1500 
pounds.  The  color  is  a  combination  of  white,  red,  brown  and  black. 
White  predominating  with  red  or  brown  markings  is  the  more  popular 
color.  There  are  black  and  white  Ayrshires  in  Scotland  whose  purity  of 
blood  is  not  questioned.  A  neat  head  with  horns  of  medium  length,  inclin- 
ing upward,  a  body  with  straight  top  line,  well-developed  chest,  arched  ribs, 
deep  flank,  and  comparatively  smooth  hind  quarters  and  an  udder. that  is 
symmetrical  and  well  balanced  in  form  and  well  carried  up  to  the  body 
characterize  the  typical  Ayrshire  cow.  The  size  of  teats  in  many  cows  is 
subject  to  the  criticism  of  being  too  small  and  one  will  do  well  to  bear  this 
in  mind  in  making  selections.  The  milk  production  of  mature  cows  has  in 
a  few  instances,  under  official  tests,  exceeded  20,000  pounds  of  milk  per 
annum.  An  Ayrshire  cow  should  be  expected  to  yield  6000  to  8000  pounds 
of  milk  under  ordinary  conditions.  The  milk  tests  in  the  neighborhood  of 
four  per  cent  butter-fat.  The  highest  official  yearly  production  for  an 
Ayrshire  cow  to  date  was  made  by  Auchenbrain  Brown  Kate  4th,  27943, 
owned  by  Percival  Roberts,  Jr.,  Narberth,  Pa.  Her  yearly  production 
amounted  to  23,022  pounds  of  milk  testing  3.99  per  cent  and  917.6  pounds 
of  butter  fat. 

BROWN  SWISS  CATTLE 

Origin  and  Development. — The  Brown  Swiss  breed  of  cattle  has  its 
origin  in  Switzerland  and  the  cattle  by  virtue  of  their  native  home  are 
strong,  rugged  and  hardy.  In  this  country  they  have  been  developed 
with  reference  to  their  dairy  qualities  to  the  extent  that  they  have  become 
recognized  as  one  of  the  distinct  dairy  breeds.  Up  to  1907  they  were 
bred  and  largely  advertised  as  a  dual  purpose  breed.  In  the  meantime, 
however,  the  American  breeders  have  given  careful  attention  to  selecting 


DAIRY  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE        129 

types  and  developing  strains  which  excel  more  particularly  in  yield  and 
economy  of  milk  production.  In  the  eastern  and  middle  sections  of  the 
United  States  the  breed  is  gaining  favor  and  promises  to  have  a  place 
sooner  or  later  of  equal  rank  with  older  and  better  recognized  breeds  of 
dairy  cattle. 

Characteristics  of  Brown  Swiss  Cattle. — The  breed  is  noted  for  its 
large  size  and  ruggedness.  Due  to  comparatively  large  bones  and  robust 
appearance,  it  is  sometimes  regarded  as  too  coarse  for  economy  of  pro- 
duction. Cows  will  vary  from  1200  to  1400  pounds  in  live  weight  at 


A  BROWN  Swiss  Cow.1 

maturity,  and  bulls  quite  frequently  exceed  2000  pounds  in  weight.  There 
is  a  tendency  toward  refinement  and  less  size  where  dairy  type  is  sought 
and  selected  to  take  the  place  of  the  former  dual  purpose  type.  Breeders 
aim,  however,  to  maintain  good  size  and  large  capacity  for  milk  production 
in  their  efforts  to  develop  herds  of  this  breed. 

A  dark-brown  or  mouse  color  with  a  line  of  gray  along  the  back,  a 
mealy  ring  about  the  muzzle,  a  light  fringe  of  hair  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  ear  and  more  or  less  light  hair  on  the  under  side  of  the  body,  constitutes 
the  characteristic  color  of  the  cattle  of  this  breed.  Quite  frequently  the 
lighter  gray  color  covers  the  entire  body. 


1  Courtesy  of  The  Field,  New  York. 


J 


A  GUERNSEY  BuLL.1 


1  Courtesy  of  The  Field,  New  York. 

130 


A  TYPICAL  GUERNSEY  Cow. 


DAIRY  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE        131; 

The  head  and  neck  are  comparatively  heavy;  the  males,  and  quite 
frequently  the  cows,  carrying  more  or  less  dewlap.  Well-developed  udders, 
proportionate  in  size  to  the  size  of  body,  are  sought  in  the  selection  of 
mature  cows.  A  register  of  production  for  animals  of  superior  merit  has 
been  formed  by  the  American  Brown  Swiss  Cattle  Breeders'  Association 
and  there  is  a  loyal  effort  on  the  part  of  breeders  to  make  records  that 
will  compare  favorably  with  records  of  other  breeds.  The  breed  has 
demonstrated  its  ability  to  make  very  profitable  productions  of  milk  and 
butter-fat.  The  milk  tests  on  the  average  about  4.0  per  cent.  The  high- 
est official  yearly  record  for  a  Brown  Swiss  cow  at  the  present  time  is 
19,460.6  pounds  of  milk,  testing  4.1  per  cent  and  798.16  pounds  of  butter- 
fat.  This  record  was  made  by  the  cow  College  Brauvura  2d,  2577,  owned 
by  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  East  Lansing,  Mich. 

GUERNSEY  CATTLE 

Origin  and  Development. — Guernsey  cattle  take  their  name  from 
Guernsey  Island,  located  in  the  English  Channel  not  far  from  France. 
This  island  and  two  smaller  ones,  Alderney  and  Sarnia,  belong  to  the 
Channel  Islands  group,  and  is  where  the  Guernsey  breed  originated  and 
has  been  developed.  These  islands,  of  which  Guernsey  is  the  largest, 
contain  only  2600  acres.  On  Guernsey  the  land  is  more  or  less  hilly  and 
rough,  and  the  farms  are  small  and  devoted  exclusively  to  horticulture  and 
dairying.  Many  of  the  crops,  such  as  grapes,  melons  and  flowers,  are 
grown  in  greenhouses.  The  cattle  are  owned  in  small  herds  and,  in  order 
to  make  the  best  use  of  the  available  pastures,  are  tethered  or  staked 
out  when  allowed  to  graze. 

The  people  devote  their  attention  to  the  one  breed  of  cattle  and 
exclude  all  other  cattle  from  the  island,  except  those  which  may  be  imported 
for  immediate  slaughter.  The  breed  undoubtedly  has  its  origin  in  stock 
of  early  French  varieties  known  as  Brittany  and  Normandy  cattle.  The 
production  of  a  rich  quality  of  high-colored  milk  and  butter  has  always 
been  the  principal  object  in  breeding  and  developing  this  breed,  and 
naturally  this  has  resulted  in  excellence  of  performance  on  the  part  of 
well-grown  cattle  of  the  breed. 

Guernsey  cattle  were  introduced  into  America  early  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  but  not  until  1893,  when  the  dairy  qualities  of  Guernsey  cattle 
were  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  general  public  by  records  made  at 
the  World's  Columbian  Exhibition  at  Chicago,  did  Guernsey  interests 
develop  to  the  extent  they  deserved.  The  American  Guernsey  Cattle 
Club  was  organized  in  1877,  and  of  late  years  many  importations  of 
Guernsey  cattle  have  been  made  and  much  enthusiasm  has  been  aroused 
on  the  part  of  dairymen  in  exploiting  and  developing  the  interests  of  the 
breed.  The  breed  ranks  at  the  present  time  as  one  of  the  most  popular. 

Characteristics  of  Guernsey  Cattle. — The  standard  weight  for  Guern- 
sey cows  is  1050  pounds,  and  for  bulls  1500  pounds.  Standards  which 


A  HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN  BULL.1 

The  largest  of  dairy  breeds — color,  black  and  white. 


A  TYPICAL  HOLSTEIN  Cow.1 


1  Courtesy  of  The  Field,  New  York. 


132 


DAIRY  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE        133 

demand  excellence  in  conformation  and  characteristics  pertaining  to 
dairy  type  are  fulfilled  by  many  cattle  of  the  breed.  Development  for 
usefulness  rather  than  for  beauty  of  form  has  resulted  in  a  lack  of  refine- 
ment and  neatness  of  outline  in  a  good  many  of  the  cattle.  The  compara- 
tively few  Guernsey  cattle  in  the  country  encouraged  breeders  to  retain  all 
pure-bred  animals  and  this  accounts  for  much  of  the  lack  of  uniformity 
that  exists.  The  American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club  was  first  to  establish 
an  advanced  registry  for  official  annual  productions  of  milk  and  butter-fat 
and  this  again  has  been  a  standard  toward  which  breeders  have  worked 
to  a  greater  extent  in  many  instances  than  they  have  for  excellence  of 
form.  Marked  improvement,  however,  in  uniformity  and  excellence  of 
dairy  form  has  been  noted  in  the  show  herds  exhibited  during  the  past 
few  years. 

In  color  the  Guernsey  is  a  shade  of  fawn,  varying  from  dark-red  to 
light-yellow  with  white  markings.  The  color  of  the  muzzle  in  most 
instances,  which  is  regarded  as  most  desirable,  is  buff  or  flesh  color.  A 
dark  muzzle  is  permissible  but  undesirable  on  the  part  of  critical  judges. 
More  emphasis  is  laid  upon  rich  yellow  secretion  in  the  skin,  especially 
in  the  ear  and  at  the  end  of  the  tail,  together  with  a  yellowish  appearance 
of  the  horns  and  hoofs  than  is  laid  upon  the  color  markings.  The  rich 
orange  secretions  of  the  body  are  believed  to  indicate  a  rich  yellow  color 
of  the  milk,  which  is  regarded  as  a  most  important  Guernsey  characteristic^ 
Guernsey  milk  is  not  only  yellow  but  of  good  quality,  testing  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  five  per  cent.  The  yield  of  milk  under  ordinary  conditions 
should  be  6000  to  7000  pounds  per  annum.  Under  official  tests,  many 
Guernseys  have  far  exceeded  this  amount.  In  three  instances  Guernsey 
cows  have  held  the  world's  championship  record  in  butter-fat  production. 
The  highest  official  yearly  record  of  milk  and  butter-fat  production  held 
by  a  Guernsey  cow  was  made  by  Murne  Cowan,  19597,  owned  by  0.  C. 
Barber,  Akron,  Ohio,  her  production  amounting  to  24,008  pounds  of 
milk,  testing  4.57  per  cent  and  1098.18  pounds  of  butter-fat. 

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN 

Origin  and  Development. — Holstein-Friesian  cattle,  commonly  called 
Holsteins  in  America,  have  their  origin  in  Friesland,  a  province  of  Holland 
bordering  on  the  North  Sea,  where  low,  fertile  dyke  lands  have  been 
favorable  for  the  development  of  a  large  breed  of  cattle  capable  of  making 
large  productions  of  milk.  History  records  that  for  a  thousand  or  more 
years  these  cattle  had  been  bred  and  utilized  for  dairy  purposes.  Since 
1885  they  have  been  extensively  introduced  into  most  of  the  dairy  sections 
of  America  and  because  of  their  large  size  and  the  large  quantity  of  milk 
which  it  is  characteristic  of  them  to  produce,  the  breed  ranks  as  one  of 
the  most  popular. 

Characteristics  of  Holstein-Friesian  Cattle. — The  type  and  size  of 
the  cattle  of  this  breed  varies  considerably  and  the  terms  "beef,"  "beef 


134  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

and  milk,"  "milk  and  beef/7  and  "milk  forms"  are  used  to  describe  the 
different  types.  The  milk  and  beef  form  is  the  most  generally  accepted 
type  and  should  be  the  aim  of  men  engaged  in  the  breeding  of  these  cattle. 
Extreme  milk  form  is  usually  the  result  of  improper  growth  on  the  part 
of  young  animals  or  selection  of  breeding  stock  which  produces  too  much 
refinement.  The  following  quotation  characterizes  true  Holstein  type 
and  owners  and  breeders  of  Holstein-Friesian  cattle  base  their  claim  for 
the  superiority  of  this  breed  on  the  following  points : 

1.  "That  the  Holstein-Friesian  is  a  large,  strong,  vigorous  cow,  full 

of  energy  and  abounding  in  vitality. 

2.  "That  her  physical  organization  and  digestive  capacity  is  such 

that  she  is  able  to  turn  to  the  best  advantage  the  roughage 
of  the  farm,  converting  the  same  into  merchantable  products. 

3.  "That  she  produces  large  quantities  of  most  excellent  milk  fit 

for  any  and  all  uses,  and  fit  especially  for  shipping  purposes. 

4.  "That  heredity  is  so  firmly  established  through  her  long  lineage 

that  she  is^able  to  perpetuate  herself  through  strong,  healthy 
calves. 

5.  "And  that  when,  for  any  reason,  her  usefulness  in  the  dairy  is 

at  an  end,  she  fattens  readily  and  makes  excellent  beef." 
Cows  of  this  breed  should  weigh  1200  to  1400  pounds.      Mature 
bulls  ordinarily  weigh  1900  to  2000  pounds  or  over. 

Black  and  white  is  the  characteristic  color  in  America.  More  or 
less  white  should  extend  below  the  knee  and  at  least  some  black  should 
be  present  where  white  predominates.  The  two  colors  should  be 
distinct  from  one  another.  In  Holland  red  and  white  is  characteristic 
of  many  cattle  of  this  breed  and  occasionally  in  America  there  are  cattle 
born  of  this  color.  Such  cattle,  however,  are  not  eligible  to  register  in 
the  herd  books  of  the  American  Holstein-Friesian  Association. 

The  breed  excels  in  quantity  of  milk  rather  than  quality,  the  fat 
in  the  milk  under  ordinary  conditions  being  3  to  3.5  per  cent.  A 
higher  test  is  unreasonable  to  expect  where  the  large  flow  of  milk 
characteristic  of  this  breed  is  maintained.  In  some  instances,  the  fat 
falls  below  3  per  cent,  which  is  regarded  as  too  low,  even  in  cheese 
districts  where  this  breed  is  very  popular.  A  low  percentage  of  fat  should 
be  avoided  by  the  careful  selection  of  sires  whose  dams  yield  milk  of  a 
higher  percentage  of  fat.  Naturally  this  breed  with  its  large  size  and 
natural  tendency  to  produce  milk  of  low  percentage  of  fat  has  always 
excelled  all  other  breeds  in  milk  production.  Cows  of  this  breed  have 
in  four  instances  won  the  championship  record  for  both  milk  and  butter- 
fat  production,  and  hold  the  world's  record  at  the  present  writing,  with 
a  production  amounting  to  28,403.7  pounds  of  milk  testing  4.14  per  cent 
and  1176.47  pounds  of  butter-fat,  made  by  the  cow,  Finderne  Pride 
Johanna  Rue,  121083,  owned  by  Somerset  Holstein  Breeders'  Company, 
Somerville,  N.  J. 


HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN  BULL  AND  Cows.1 

This  breed  excels  in  size  and  production  of  milk.     They  can  be  fattened  readily  should 
their  usefulness  in  the  dairy  herd  cease,  and  make  excellent  beef. 

1  Courtesy  of  "  The  Field,  Illustrated,"  N.  Y. 


DAIRY  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 


135 


JERSEY  CATTLE 

Origin  and  Development. — Jersey  cattle  were  originally  developed 
on  the  Island  of  Jersey,  the  largest  of  the  Channel  Islands  group,  where 
a  delightful  climate,  a  rich  soil  and  a  people  united  in  their  effort  to  excel 
in  the  production  of  a  single  breed  of  dairy  cattle  combined  to  make  con- 
ditions most  favorable  for  perfecting  and  preserving  the  breed.  In  1793 
enactments  began  restricting  the  importation  and  maintenance  of  cattle 
other  than  Jerseys,  which  finally  resulted  in  its  being  a  crime  to  keep 
cattle  of  other  kinds  on  the  island  for  a  longer  period  than  twenty-four 
hours  when  they  had  to  be  slaughtered  for  beef. 


A  JERSEY  Cow.1 


Jerseys,  as  nearly  as  history  reveals,  share  with  Guernseys  the  blood 
of  the  old  Brittany  and  Normandy  cattle  of  France,  in  which  they  undoubt- 
edly have  their  principal  origin. 

The  Jersey  breed  early  attracted  the  attention  of  England's  aristoc- 
racy, who  introduced  them  into  England  to  beautify  parks  and  furnish 
the  rich  milk  that  it  was  characteristic  of  them  to  produce.  Beauty  of 
form  has  been  as  much  a  part  of  the  standard  of  excellence  that  guided 
the  breeders  in  the  development  of  their  cattle  as  has  production  of  milk, 
and  has  resulted  in  cattle  of  marked  refinement  and  beauty. 

i  Courtesy  of  The  Field,  New  York, 


136  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

Remarkable  herds  were  produced  in  England,  From  the  herd  of 
Philip  Dancey  of  that  country,  the  bull  Rioter,  746E,  was  brought  to 
America  and  to  him  the  St.  Lambert  family  of  Jersey  cattle,  so  prominent 
in  this  country,  all  trace. 

The  American  people  have  imported  many  Jersey  cattle  both  from 
the  Isle  of  Jersey  and  from  England,  and  have  always  regarded  cows  of 
the  breed  most  excellent  butter  producers.  Practical  dairymen  whose 
choice  of  breeds  has  been  the  Jersey,  have  favored  the  larger-sized  cows 
and  persistently  worked  to  secure  large  productions  of  milk  and  butter. 
As  a  result,  many  of  the  American-bred  Jerseys  are  larger  and  more  robust 
and  productive  than  the  so-called  island  type.  The  greater  size  and  pro- 
duction of  the  American  type  of  Jerseys  has  enabled  the  breed  to  hold 
a  popular  place  in  dairy  states  and  districts  with  other  dairy  breeds. 

Parallel  with  the  development  of  the  American-bred  type  of  Jersey, 
many  people  have  taken  great  pride  and  pleasure  in  maintaining  and 
preserving  the  refined  and  smaller  sized  island  type.  Jersey  cattle  have 
been  quite  universally  distributed  over  the  world  and  under  proper  care 
and  supervision  give  excellent  satisfaction. 

Characteristics  of  Jersey  Cattle. — Jersey  cattle  conform  to  a  dairy  type 
that  is  usually  extreme.  They  are  regarded  as  most  economical  producers  of 
butter  because  of  the  marked  dairy  capacity  they  possess  in  proportion  to 
their  size.  The  size  varies  according  to  the  strain  or  family  and  for  cows 
ranges  from  700  to  1000  pounds.  Bulls  will  range  from  1 100  to  1500  pounds. 
The  American-bred  families,  more  especially  the  St.  Lambert's,  are  larger 
than  the  imported  stock  from  the  Isle  of  Jersey  or  from  England. 

The  breed  matures  early  and  as  a  result  many  mistakes  have  been 
made  in  carelessly  and  intentionally  having  young  heifers  produce  their 
first  calves  at  too  young  an  age.  This  practice,  together  with  scant  feed 
rations,  not  only  reduces  the  size  but  the  constitution  and  usefulness  of 
any  breed  and,  for  a  breed  that  is  naturally  small,  results  in  severe  criti- 
cisms that  are  unfair  when  they  apply  to  a  breed  rather  than  to  individuals. 
Jersey  [cattle  that  are  properly  reared  and  well  cared  for  tend  to  be  long 
lived  and  very  satisfactory  dairy  cattle.  They  have  ranked  high  in 
economy  and  production  tests  at  many  shows  and  expositions  and  the  pro- 
duction of  cows  admitted  to  the  Jersey  register  of  merit  verify  the  fact  that 
cows  of  this  breed  have  highly  developed  powers  for  dairy  production.  The 
milk  is  of  rich  quality,  testing  ordinarily  around  5  per  cent.  It  is  reason- 
able to  expect  a  production  of  300  pounds  of  butter-fat  annually  as  an 
average  per  cow  in  herds  that  are  well  selected  and  managed.  Jacoba 
Irene,  146443,  an  American-bred  cow,  owned  by  A.  O.  Auten,  Jerseyville, 
111.,  in  three  consecutive  years  produced  42,900  pounds  of  milk  and  2366.1 
pounds  of  butter-fat.  The  present  highest  yearly  record  of  butter-fat 
production  made  by  a  Jersey  cow  is  999.14  pounds,  the  amount  of  milk 
being  17,557.8  pounds  testing  5.69  per  cent,  a  record  made  by  Sophie  19th 
of  Hood  Farm,  189748,  owned  by  C.  I.  Hood,  Lowell,  Mass. 


DAIRY    BREEDS    OF    CATTLE  137 

OTHER  DAIRY  BREEDS 

The  Dutch  Belted,  French  Canadian  and  Kerry  breeds  of  cattle 
heretofore  mentioned  rank  as  dairy  breeds,  but  representatives  of  them 
are  comparatively  few  and  in  many  sections  unknown. 

Dutch  Belted  cattle  are  so-called  from  their  peculiar  marking  which 
is  black  with  a  white  band  about  the  middle  of  the  body.  This  character- 
istic color  is  uniformly  found  in  all  pure-bred  herds  of  the  breed,  and  is 
the  result  of  scientific  breeding  experiments  in  Holland  where  the  breed 
had  its  origin,  and  was  known  as  Lakenfeld  cattle  from  the  word  "Laken," 
meaning  blanket  or  sheet  about  the  body. 

The  usefulness  of  the  breed  was  not  a  primary  object  in  its  develop- 
ment and  for  that  reason  it  does  not  enjoy  a  popularity  common  to  more 
prominent  breeds. 

Marked  general  improvement  in  type  and  production  and  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  cattle  is  the  ambition  of  those  who  are  promoting  the 
breed  in  America. 

French  Canadian  cattle  are  a  local  and  popular  class  of  dairy  cattle 
in  the  somewhat  rough  country  and  severe  winter  climate  of  the  province 
of  Quebec,  Canada.  Here  the  breed  has  been  developed  from  early  French 
stock  and  bred  for  over  two  hundred  years.  The  characteristics  of  the 
cattle  resemble  very  much  the  Jersey  breed  and  lead  to  the  belief  that  they 
have  the  same  origin  in  blood.  Their  hardiness  and  adaptability  to  with- 
stand Canadian  winters  and  make  economical  yields  of  rich  milk  are 
commendable. 

A  production  of  5000  pounds  of  milk  testing  4  per  cent  or  more  is 
regarded  as  a  fair  average  annual  production  for  cows  of  this  breed. 

Kerry  cattle  originated  in  the  Kerry  mountains  of  Ireland  under  most 
adverse  conditions  of  soil,  climate  and  people.  They  have  been  called 
"the  poor  man's  cow."  They  are  very  small  as  a  natural  result  of  their 
poor  environment,  bulls  weighing  800  to  1000  pounds  and  cows  400  to  700 
pounds.  There  are  two  types  of  the  breed  resulting  from  a  cross  which 
resulted  in  the  type  called  the  Derter-Kerry,  which  is  smaller  and  more 
beefy  than  the  original  true  Kerry.  The  economic  value  of  Kerry  cattle 
is  best  appreciated  in  its  native  home,  where  its  adaptability,  hardiness 
and  ability  to  rustle  and  thrive  recommend  it.  The  novelty  of  the  breed 
has  led  to  a  very  limited  distribution  of  the  breed,  a  few  herds  having 
been  introduced  into  Canada  and  the  United  States. 

DAIRY  BREED   ORGANIZATION  IN  AMERICA 

The  welfare  and  preservation  of  breed  interests  are  secured  by  respon- 
sible national  breed  associations  that  are  recognized  and  approved  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  and 
the  Canadian  Department  of  Agriculture,  Ottawa,  Ont.  All  the  dairy 
breeds  of  cattle  except  the  Kerry  have  such  organizations  which  are  sup- 
ported by  a  membership  composed  of  the  cattle  breeders  whose  interest 


138 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


prompts  them  to  become  members,  and  by  all  who  register  pure-bred 
cattle  of  the  respective  breeds.  Each  association  registers  only  cattle 
that  are  eligible  by  virtue  of  their  purity  of  breeding,  proper  identification 
and  being  formally  and  regularly  presented  for  registration  on  forms  of 
application  furnished  by  the  association  and  certified  to  by  the  breeder 
or  owner.  Certificates  of  registry  are  furnished  the  breeders  or  owners 
and  all  transfers  of  ownership  of  registered  animals  where  the  identity  of 
subsequent  offspring  is  to  be  preserved  must  be  formally  reported.  Upon 
being  reported  it  is  recorded  and  a  certificate  of  transfer  issued  to  the 
owner. 

The  associations  all  publish  herd  books  containing  a  complete  list 
of  all  registered  animals  and  in  most  instances  also  publish  literature  that 
is  useful  and  helpful  in  promoting  its  cattle  interests.  One  who  is  particu- 
larly interested  in  a  given  breed  will  do  well  to  avail  himself  of  such  litera- 
ture, which  is  usually  furnished  gratis  to  those  who  apply  for  it.  The 
location  of  the  office  and  the  secretaries  of  the  respective  associations  can 
be  readily  determined  by  writing  the  national  departments  of  agriculture, 
heretofore  mentioned,  if  not  by  acquaintance  with  breeders  of  registered 
stock. 

In  addition  to  a  registry  of  the  names  of  pure-bred  animals,  the  five 
more  important  breed  associations  maintain  an  advanced  registry  or 
register  of  merit  for  cattle  which  have  excelled  in  production  and  made 
official  records  of  milk  and  butter-fat  equivalent  to  or  surpassing  definite 
standards  fixed  for  periods  varying  from  seven  days  to  one  year. 

Following  is  a  tabulated  statement  of  the  requirements  for  respective 
breeds,  ages  and  periods  of  production: 


Age. 

AYRSHIRE. 

BROWN  Swiss. 

GUERNSEY. 

HOLSTEIN. 

JERSEY. 

Year  Record. 

Year  Record. 

Year 
Record. 

7-Day 
Record. 

7-Day  Record. 

Year 
Record. 

Pounds 
Milk. 

Pounds 
Butter 
Fat. 

Pounds 
Milk. 

Pounds 
Butter 
Fat. 

Pounds 
Butter 
Fat. 

Pounds 
Butter 

Fat. 

Pounds 
Butter 
Fat. 

Pounds 
Butter 
Fat. 

Pounds 
Butter 
Fat. 

2  years  .    . 

6000 
6500 
7500 
8500 

214.3 
236.0 
279.0 
322.0 

6000* 
6430 
7288 
8146 
9000 

2.35 

222.0* 
238.5 
271.3 
304.2 
337.0 

0.09 

250.5 
287.0 
323.5 
360.0 

7.2 

'8.8 
10.4 
12.0 

12.0 
12.0 
12.0 
12.0 

14.0 
14.0 
14.0 
14.0 

250.5 
287.0 
323.5 
360.0 

3  years 

4  years       . 

5  years   . 

Gvpars 

Require-      f 
ments 
increase      -j 
each  day 
by  pound    [ 

1.37 

and 
2.74 

0.06 
and 
0.12 

0.1 

0.00439 

.1 

*  Two  and  one-half  years. 


DAIRY  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE        139 

Great  advancement  in  the  appreciation  and  breeding  of  pure-bred 
cattle  has  been  and  is  being  brought  about  by  volunteer  state  and  com- 
munity organizations.  The  closer  contact  which  these  associations  have 
with  the  masses  engaged  in  dairying  make  their  opportunity  greater  than 
that  of  national  associations  for  giving  encouragement  to  men  to  use  the 
very  best  breeding  animals,  especially  sires,  that  it  is  possible  to  secure. 
In  fact,  such  organizations  cannot  be  encouraged  too  much,  for  in  the 
work  of  local  breeders  and  community  effort  lies  the  success  of  maintaining 
high  standards  of  excellence  and  the  preservation  of  all  breeds. 

REFERENCES 

"Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals."     Plumb. 
"Study  of  Breeds."     Shaw. 


CHAPTER    13 
CLEAN  MILK  PRODUCTION 

BY  C.  W.  LARSON 
Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry,  The  Pennsylvania  State  College 

More  than  half  of  the  milk  produced  in  the  United  States  is  used  for 
direct  consumption.  Pure,  clean  milk  is  an  excellent  food  and  is  cheap. 
It  contains  all  the  essential  elements  for  a  complete  and  balanced  ration 
for  man.  On  account  of  its  being  used  by  infants,  children  and  invalids 
who  are  least  able  to  resist  the  effects  of  unclean  food,  and  because  milk  is 
so  easily  contaminated,  it  is  essential  that  great  care  be  taken  in  its  pro- 
duction and  handling. 

CLASSES   OF  MILK 

Sanitary  Milk  is  no  definite  class  of  milk.  It  is  simply  a  term  used  to 
designate  good,  clean  milk  produced  with  extra  care.  It  is  usually  sold  at 
a  price  somewhat  above  prevailing  milk  prices. 

Guaranteed  Milk  is  milk  that  the  producer  guarantees  to  be  produced 
under  certain  conditions  and  usually  with  some  standard  of  fat  and  bac- 
terial content. 

Standardized  Milk  is  milk  which  has  been  altered  in  its  amount  of 
butter-fat  by  skimming  or  the  adding  of  cream. 

Certified  Milk  is  milk  that  has  been  produced  under  certain  conditions 
prescribed  by  a  commission,  usually  consisting  of  a  veterinarian,  a  physi- 
cian, a  chemist  and  a  bacteriologist.  The  prescribed  conditions  include 
scrupulously  clean  methods,  healthy  cows,  healthy  milkers  and  carefully 
sterilized  utensils.  Such  milk  should  not  contain  over  10,000  bacteria  per 
cubic  centimeter.  It  is  usually  sold  at  a  considerably  higher  price  than 
ordinary  milk. 

Inspected  Milk  is  produced  from  healthy  cows  that  have  been 
inspected.  The  inspection  involves  an  examination  by  a  city  or  state 
inspector  of  premises  and  methods. 

Pasteurized  Milk  is  milk  that  has  been  heated  to  a  sufficiently  high 
temperature  to  kill  the  harmful  bacteria,  or  germs,  and  then  immediately 
cooled.  The  temperature  to  which  it  is  heated  varies  with  the  length  of 
time  it  is  held.  For  market  milk,  it  is  customary  to  heat  to  140°  to  145°  F. 
for  twenty  minutes. 

Modified  Milk  is  high-class  milk,  such  as  certified  or  sanitary  milk, 
altered  in  composition  to  suit  certain  uses.  Such  milk  is  used  for  infants 
and  invalids. 

140 


CLEAN    MILK    PRODUCTION  141 

EQUIPMENT  AND   METHODS 

Clean,  Healthy  Cows. — The  first  essential  in  the  production  of  clean, 
healthy  milk  is  to  have  cows  that  are  clean  and  free  from  disease.  The  milk 
from  emaciated  animals,  or  those  suffering  from  any  disease,  should  not  be 
sold.  The  milk  from  cows  having  inflamed  udders  or  sore  teats  should  not 
be  put  into  the  general  supply.  The  cows  should  be  comfortable  in  order 
to  produce  normal  milk.  Any  unusual  condition  or  disturbance  will  cause 
them  to  produce  abnormal  milk.  They  should  be  kept  in  dry,  clean, 
properly-bedded  stalls.  The  food  should  be  free  from  mustiness  and  no 
decomposing  silage  or  wet  foods  should  be  given  after  they  become  mouldy. 
The  drinking  water  should  be  clean  and  fresh. 

Most  of  the  dirt  that  finds  its  way  into  the  milk  pails  falls  from  the 
bodies  of  the  cows.  It  is  essential,  therefore,  that  the  cows  be  kept  clean. 
One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  keeping  cows  clean  is  to  have  the 
platforms  on  which  they  stand  the  proper  length,  so  that  the  manure  will 
drop  into  the  gutter.  Adjustable  stanchions  are  also  desirable,  so  that  the 
proper  alignment  can  be  made  on  the  platform.  Cows  kept  in  the  stable 
should  be  groomed  at  least  once  a  day,  but  this  should  be  sufficiently  long 
before  milking  time  to  permit  the  dust  to  settle.  Wiping  the  udder  and  the 
flanks  with  a  clean,  damp  cloth  requires  only  a  short  time  and  will  do  much 
to  remove  dirt  that  would  otherwise  fall  into  the  pail.  It  is  practical, 
where  clean  milk  is  being  produced,  to  clip  the  udder  and  flanks  occasion- 
ally. This  prevents  the  dirt  from  sticking,  and  makes  it  possible  to  keep 
the  cows  cleaner. 

Stables. — Expensive  barns  are  not  essential  to  the  production  of  clean 
milk.  The  health  of  the  cows  and  the  methods  of  the  milker  are  of  greater 
importance  and  have  more  effect  upon  the  finished  product.  Good  con- 
struction and  convenient  arrangement  of  the  stable  may  lessen  the  work, 
keep  the  cows  more  comfortable  and  have  a  beneficial  effect  upon  the 
milkers. 

The  barn  should  be  located  on  well-drained  land  and  be  free  from 
contaminating  surroundings.  Horses,  chickens,  stagnant  water  and 
manure  piles,  when  near  the  stable,  may  pollute  the  air.  Odors  are  easily 
absorbed  by  milk.  The  stable  floor  should  be  of  concrete  or  seme  other 
material  that  does  not  absorb  the  liquid  manure,  and  at  the  same  time 
should  be  sufficiently  smooth  to  be  easily  cleaned.  The  walls  should  be 
smooth  and  free  from  ledges  to  avoid  collecting  dirt.  The  occasional  use 
of  whitewash  on  the  walls  and  ceiling  is  recommended. 

The  barn  should  not  be  overcrowded  and  at  the  same  time  should  not 
have  an  excessive  amount  of  space  in  cold  climates.  From  500  to  1000 
cubic  feet  per  cow  is  satisfactory.  Too  much  light  cannot  be  provided. 
Sunlight  destroys  bacteria  and  also  makes  a  healthy  atmosphere  for  the 
cows.  The  more  light  the  better,  and  it  is  well  that  it  be  evenly  distributed 
and  that -the  windows  be  located,  if  possible,  so  that  the  light  can  shine  into 
the  gutter. 

43 


142  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

The  dairy  barn  should  be  well  ventilated.  Experiments  at  the 
Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station  have  shown  that  cows  will  do  well  even 
in  an  open  shed,  providing  they  are  kept  dry  and  out  of  the  wind.  Since, 
therefore,  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  the  dairy  barn  warm,  the  problem 
of  ventilation  is  greatly  lessened.  It  is  not  difficult  to  get  fresh  air  into  the 
barn,  but  it  is  difficult  to  get  sufficient  fresh  air  without  cooling  the  atmos- 
phere. The  air  in  the  barn  should  be  changed,  even  if  it  does  become  cold. 
Cows  must  have  fresh  air  in  order  to  produce  their  maximum  of  milk  and 
keep  healthy.  Have  many  and  small  intakes  and  few  and  large  outlets. 
The  capacity  of  the  intakes  and  the  outlets  should  be  equal  and  provide 
about  one  square  foot  in  cross  section  for  each  four  or  five  cows. 


MILK  PAILS  OF  BEST  DESIGN.1 

Milkers. — A  clean  and  careful  milker  can  produce  clean  milk  in  a 
poor  barn,  but  an  unclean  milker  cannot  produce  clean  milk  in  any  barn. 
The  milker  must  be  clean  and  healthy  and,  above  all  things,  should  milk 
with  dry  hands.  The  practice  of  wetting  the  hands  with  milk  is  deplorable. 
It  is  unnecessary.  The  milker  should  always  wash  his  hands  before  start- 
ing to  milk.  The  air,  during  the  milking,  should  be  kept  free  from  dust 
and  odors.  Manure  should  not  be  removed  from  the  barn,  nor  should  any 
dusty  feed  be  given  during  the  milking  time.  Silage  or  other  feeds  that 
have  an  odor  should  be  fed  at  least  three  hours  before  milking,  so  that 
the  odor  will  not  be  taken  up  by  the  milk. 

Small-top  Milk  Pails. — Most  of  the  dirt  that  gets  into  the  milk 
drops  from  the  cows  during  milking  time.  If,  therefore,  the  opening  at 
the  top  of  the  pail  is  closed  to  one-sixth  the  size  of  an  ordinary  pail,  only 

1  Courtesy  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


CLEAN    MILK    PRODUCTION  143 

one-sixth  as  much  dirt  gains  access  to  the  milk.  With  a  little  practice, 
the  small-top  milk  pail  can  be  used  as  easily  as  the  large-top  pail. 

Clean  Tinware. — All  the  cans  and  pails  that  are  used  for  milk  should 
be  of  metal,  and  all  of  the  joints  and  corners  should  be  completely  filled 
with  solder.  Wooden  pails  should  not  be  used.  To  wash  the  tinware, 
it  should  first  be  rinsed  with  lukewarm  water,  then  thoroughly  scrubbed 
with  brush,  hot  water  and  washing  powder,  and  finally,  either  steamed 
or  rinsed  with  boiling  hot  water.  It  should  not  be  wiped  with  a  cloth, 
but  should  be  allowed  to  drain  and  dry.  The  heat  of  the  steam  or  boiling 
water  will  soon  dry  the  tinware. 

Strainers. — Where  milk  is  produced  in  a  clean  way  it  is  not  necessary 
to  have  a  strainer.  It  is  usually  not  desirable  to  have  a  strainer  on  the 
milk  pail,  for  the  dirt  collected  will  have  all  the  injurious  effect  washed 
from  it  into  the  pail  during  the  milking.  A  strainer  may  be  used  on  the 
can  or  milk  cooler.  For  this  a  cloth  strainer,  made  especially  for  that 
purpose  and  used  only  once,  is  satisfactory.  The  cheesecloth  strainer 
that  is  used  from  day  to  day  contaminates  the  milk  instead  of  purifying 
it.  A  metal  strainer  is  satisfactory. 

Handling  the  Milk. — As  soon  as  the  milk  has  been  drawn  it  should 
be  removed  from  the  stable  so  that  it  will  not  absorb  odors.  A  convenient 
milk-room  should  be  provided.  This  room  should  be  clean  and  free  from 
dust  and  odors.  The  milk  should  be  cooled  at  once.  Under  the  best  of 
conditions,  some  bacteria  or  germs  get  into  the  milk,  and  the  problem, 
therefore,  is  to  prevent  these  bacteria  from  increasing  in  number.  At  a 
temperature  of  70°  F.  one  bacterium  may  increase  to  two  in  twenty  min- 
utes, but  at  50°  F.  or  lower  it  requires  a  much  longer  time.  One  bacterium 
at  50°  F.  may  increase  in  twelve  hours  to  six  or  seven,  while  at  70°  F. 
it  may  increase  to  six  or  seven  hundred.  Since,  therefore,  there  are  several 
hundred  bacteria  in  every  cubic  centimeter  of  good  milk,  some  realization 
may  be  had  of  how  many  thousands  of  bacteria  will  be  developed  in  ten 
or  twelve  hours  at  70°  F.  The  following  table,  prepared  by  Stocking, 
shows  the  importance  of  cooling  milk  at  once  to  a  low  temperature.  The 
milk  that  was  used  in  this  experiment  contained  a  low  percentage  of  bac- 
teria when  produced. 

EFFECT  OF  DIFFERENT  TEMPERATURES  UPON  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  BACTERIA 

IN  MILK. 

Temperature  Maintained  Bacteria  per  c.c.  at 

for  12  Hours.  end  of  12  Hours. 

40°  F 4,000 

47°  F 9,000 

50°  F 18,000 

54.5°  F 38,000 

60°  F 453,000 

70°  F 8,800,000 

80°  F 55,300,000 

Coolers. — There  are  various  styles  of  apparatus  on  the  market  for 
cooling  milk.  These  are  called  coolers.  They  are  arranged  so  that  the 


144  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

water  passes  on  the  inside  of  the  tubes  and  the  milk  passes  over  them. 
By  having  a  supply  of  cold  water  passing  through  the  tubes,  the  milk 
can  be  cooled  to  within  two  or  three  degrees  of  the  temperature  of  the 
water.  Unless  the  cooler  is  placed  in  a  room  free  from  dust,  the  milk 
may  become  contaminated.  Coolers  with  a  hood  or  covering  are  preferred. 
Those  having  few  joints  so  that  they  may  easily  be  cleaned  are  also  pref- 
erable. When  it  is  not  necessary  to  cool  the  milk  immediately  for  ship- 
ment, or  otherwise,  it  may  be  cooled  by  placing  the  can  in  a  tank  of  cold 
water.  Unless  the  water  supply  is  plentiful  and  the  water  cold,  it  is  desir- 
able to  have  ice. 

Suggestions  for  Improvement. — A  list  of  suggestions  and  instructions 
of  good  methods  and  practices  placed  in  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  barn 
does  much  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  milk.  A  list  of  twenty-one 
suggestions,  composed  by  Webster,  gives  the  essential  points  to  be  fol- 
lowed in  the  production  of  clean  milk.  These  suggestions  are  as  follows: 

"I.  Cows. 

"1.  Have  the  herd  examined  frequently  by  a  skilled  veterinarian. 
Remove  all  animals  suspected  of  not  being  in  good  health.  Never  add  an 
animal  to  the  herd  unless  it  is  known  to  be  free  from  disease. 

"2.  Never  allow  a  cow  to  be  abused,  excited  by  loud  talking  or  other 
disturbances.  Do  not  unduly  expose  her  to  cold  and  storm. 

"3.  Clean  the  under  part  of  the  body  of  the  cow  daily.  Hair  in 
the  region  of  the  udder  should  be  kept  short.  Wipe  the  udder  and  sur- 
rounding parts  with  a  clean,  damp  cloth  before  milking. 

"4.  Do  not  allow  any  strong-flavored  foods  such  as  cabbage,  turnips, 
garlic,  etc.,  to  be  eaten  except  directly  after  milking. 

"5.  Salt  should  always  be  accessible. 

"  6.  Radical  changes  of  food  should  be  made  gradually. 

"7.  Have  plenty  of  pure,  fresh  water  in  abundance,  easy  of  access 
and  not  too  cold. 

"II.  STABLES. 

"8.  Dairy  animals  should  be  kept  in  a  stable  where  no  other  animals 
are  housed,  and  preferably  one  without  a  cellar  or  storage  loft.  Stables 
should  be  light — four  feet  of  glass  per  cow — and  dry,  with  at  least  500  cubic 
feet  of  air  for  each  animal.  The  stable  should  have  air  inlets  and  outlets 
so  arranged  as  to  give  good  ventilation  without  drafts  over  the  cows.  It 
should  have  as  few  flies  as  possible. 

"9.  Floors,  walls  and  ceilings  should  be  tight  and  the  walls  and  ceiling 
should  be  kept  free  from  dust  and  cobwebs  and  whitewashed  twice  a  year. 
There  should  be  as  few  dust-catching  ledges  and  projections  as  possible. 

"10.  Allow  no  musty  or  dirty  litter  or  strong-smelling  material  in 
the  stable.  Store  the  manure  under  cover  at  least  forty  feet  from  the 
stable  and  in  a  dark  place.  Use  land-plaster  in  the  gutter  and  on  the  floor. 


CLEAN     MILK    PRODUCTION 


145 


"III.  MILK  HOUSE. 

"11.  The  can  should  not  remain  in  the  stable  while  being  filled. 
Remove  the  milk  from  each  cow  at  once  from  the  stable  to  a  clean  room. 
Strain  immediately  through  absorbent  cotton  or  cotton  flannel;  cool  to 
50°  F.  as  soon  as  possible.  Store  at  50°  F.  or  lower. 

"12.  Utensils  should  be  of  metal  with  all  joints  smoothly  soldered. 
If  possible,  they  should 
be  made  of  stamped 
metal.  Never  allow 
the  utensils  to  become 
rough  or  rusty  inside. 
Use  them  for  nothing 
but  milk. 

"13.  To  clean  the 
utensils,  use  pure  water. 
First  rinse  them  with 
warm  water,  then  wash 
them  inside  and  out  in 
hot  water  in  which  a 
cleaning  material  has 
been  dissolved.  Rinse 
again  and  sterilize  in 
boiling  water  or  steam. 
Then  keep  them  in- 
verted in  pure  air,  and 
in  the  sun  as  much  as 
possible,  until  ready  to 
use. 


A  CLEAN  MILKER  IN  A  CLEAN  STABLE  AT 
MILKING  TiME.1 

Note  the  clean  suit,  sanitary  milking  stool,  small-top 
pail,  cow  with  clean  flanks  and  udder,  and  sanitary 
stable  construction.  Under  these  conditions  clean  milk 
can  be  easily  produced. 


"IV.  MILKING   AND 
HANDLING  MILK. 

"14.  A  milker 
should  wash  his  hands 
immediately  before 
milking  and  should 
milk  with  dry  hands. 
He  should  wear  a  clean 
outer  garment,  which  should  be  kept  in  a  clean,  place  when  not  in  use. 
Tobacco  should  not  be  used  while  milking. 

"  15.  In  milking  be  quiet,  quick,  clean  and  thorough.  Commence  milk- 
ing the  same  hour  morning  and  evening.  Milk  the  cows  in  the  same  order. 

"16.  If  any  part  of  the  milk  is  bloody,  stringy  or  not  natural  in 
appearance,  or  if,  by  accident,  dirt  gets  into  the  pail,  the  whole  should 
be  rejected. 

i  From  Farmers'  Bulletin  602,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


146  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

"  17.  Weigh  and  record  the  milk  given  by  each  cow. 

"  18.  Never  mix  warm  milk  with  that  which  has  been  cooled.  Do 
not  allow  milk  to  freeze. 

"  19.  Avoid  using  any  dry,  dusty  feed  just  previous  to  milking. 

"20.  Persons  suffering  from  any  disease,  or  who  have  been  exposed 
to  any  contagious  disease,  must  remain  away  from  the  milk. 

"21.  The  shorter  the  time  between  the  production  of  the  milk  and 
its  delivery,  and  between  its  delivery  and  its  use,  the  better  will  be  the 
quality." 

REFERENCES 
"Dairy  Chemistry."    Snyder. 
"  The  Milk  Question."    Rosenau. 
"Bacteria  and  Country  Life."    Lipman. 

"  Modern  Methods  of  Treating  Milk  and  Milk  Products."    Van  Slyke. 
"Practical  Dairy  Bacteriology."     Conn. 

Kentucky  Expt.  Station  Circular  6.     "  Inexpensive  Appliances  and  Utensils  for  Dairy." 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 

348.     "Bacteria  in  Milk." 

366.     "Effect  of  Machine  Milking  and  Milk  Supply  of  Cities." 

413.     "  Care  of  Milk  and  Its  Use  in  the  Home." 

602.     "  Production  of  Clean  Milk." 

608.     "  Removal  of  Garlic  Flavor  from  Milk." 


CHAPTER    14 

DAIRY  BUTTER-MAKING 

BY  EKNEST  L.  ANTHONY 
Assistant  Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry,  The  Pennsylvania  State  College 

Farm  dairying  has  attracted  public  attention  to  an  uncommon  degree 
in  the  last  few  years.  This  is  due  largely  to  the  modern  development  in 
the  dairy  field  as  well  as  to  the  adaptability  of  dairy  farming  or  certain 
phases  of  it  to  average  farm  practices. 

Adaptation. — Dairy  farming  is  especially  adapted  to  farms  located 
near  markets,  because  of  the  regular  demand  for  fresh  dairy  products. 
Dairy  products  are,  as  a  whole,  perishable  and  must  be  marketed  soon  after 
being  produced.  For  this  reason  easy  and  frequent  access  to  markets  is 
very  desirable.  Dairying  is  also  adaptable  as  a  side  line  in  general  farming, 
fruit  raising  and  poultry  farming.  It  provides  for  the  utilization  of 
waste  products  on  the  farm  as  feed  for  cows  and  aids  in  the  continuous 
and  economical  employment  of  labor. 

It  is  also  particularly  adapted  to  the  person  starting  in  to  farm  on  a 
small  scale,  as  it  is  possible  with  a  comparatively  small  capital  to  start  a 
dairy  business  which  enables  the  dairyman  to  live  while  his  business  grows. 

The  Need  of  Dairy  Farming. — According  to  late  authorities,  the 
people  of  the  United  States  consume  over  seven-tenths  of  a  pint  of  milk  per 
capita  daily.  To  this  should  be  added  the  enormous  consumption  of 
butter,  cheese,  ice  cream,  condensed  milk  and  other  minor  dairy  products. 
This  gives  an  idea  of  the  possibilities  which  are  before  the  American  dairy- 
man today. 

Types  of  Dairy  Farming. — Several  types  of  dairy  farming  are  pursued 
in  the  United  States;  they  are:  (1)  the  production  of  milk  for  wholesale 
and  retail  trade;  (2)  the  production  of  cream  for  creameries  and  ice  cream 
factories;  (3)  the  manufacture  of  cheese  on  the  farm;  (4)  the  manufacture 
of  butter  upon  the  farm,  or  farm  butter-making. 

Market  Milk. — The  production  of  market  milk  is  one  of  the  leading 
types  of  dairy  farming.  It  requires  easy  access  to  reliable  markets,  and  is 
most  successful  when  conducted  on  a  fairly  extensive  scale.  It  requires 
less  labor  than  most  other  types  of  dairy  farming.  Clean  milk  production  is 
discussed  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

Farm  Cheese-making. — This  type  is  especially  adapted  to  dairy 
farms  not  located  close  to  dairy  markets.  Cheese  is  less  perishable  than 
the  other  dairy  products  and  this  enables  the  farmer  to  engage  in  dairying 

147 


148 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


and  market  his  products  at  his  convenience.  Farm  cheese-making  is  most 
extensive  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  especially  in  the  rougher 
sections.  Cheddar  and  brick  cheese  are  largely  made.  Much  soft  cheese, 
such  as  schmier  kase,  cottage  and  Dutch  hand  is  also  produced  in  many 
localities.  Successful  farm  cheese-making  requires  some  special  cheese 
apparatus,  as  well  as  a  fair  understanding  of  the  principles  which  govern 
cheese  manufacture. 

Farm  Butter-making. — On  the  general  farm  more  attention  is  paid 

to  the  making  of  farm 
butter  than  to  any 
other  phase  of  farm 
dairying.  This  is  true 
because  of  the  large 
market  for  the  product 
and  the  adaptability 
of  farm  butter-making 
to  average  farm  con- 
ditions. 

Control  of  Prod- 
ucts.— The  production 
of  good  butter  of  uni- 
form quality  starts 
with  the  cow.  Milk 
from  unhealthy  cows 
can  never  be  made 
into  first-class  prod- 
ucts. Neither  can 
cows  that  are  kept  in 
unclean,  unsanitary 
places  produce  clean 
milk. 

One  making  but- 
ter on  the  farm  can 


A  GOOD  TYPE  OF  A  DAIRY  HOUSE. l 


have  complete  control 

of  his  milk  from  the  time  that  it  is  drawn  from  the  cow  until  it  is  made 
into  butter.  This  is  not  true  of  the  creamery  man  or  manufacturer,  who 
has  to  secure  his  product  from  outside  sources  over  which  he  has  no 
supervision.  This  advantage  means  much  to  the  farm  butter-maker  if  he 
realizes  it  and  makes  the  most  of  it. 

Cleanliness  Necessary. — The  cows  should  always  be  brushed  off  and 
kept  clean  at  milking  time.  Care  should  be  taken  that  all  utensils  be  kept 
clean  and  in  good  condition,  so  that  the  cream,  whether  skimmed  or  sepa- 
rated, shall  be  good,  sweet  and  not  absorb  any  undesirable  taints  or  odors. 
Much  butter  which  would  otherwise  be  good  is  damaged  in  flavor  because 

1  Hygienic  Laboratory,  Washington,  D.  C. 


DAIRY    BUTTER-MAKING 


149 


care  is  not  taken  to  keep  dirt  and  impurities  out  of  it.  Milk  not  separated 
by  a  cream  separator  should  be  at  once  cooled  by  some  suitable  method 
and  held  as  cold  as  possible  until  the  cream  has  risen.  Cream  should  be 
cooled  as  soon  as  it  is  separated. 

Percentage  of  Fat  in  Cream. — If  a  separator  is  used  the  percentage 


A  GOOD  TYPE  OF  CREAM  SEPARATOR.1 

of  fat  in  the  cream  may  be  regulated.  When  it  is  impossible  to  test  the 
cream  for  its  percentage  of  fat,  the  separator  so  regulated  that  about  12 
to  14  per  cent  of  the  total  milk  is  separated  and  comes  out  as  cream,  will 
give  approximately  the  proper  richness  to  the  cream.  The  best  results 

1  Courtesy  of  the  Sharpies  Separator  Company,  West  Chester,  Pa. 


150  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

will  be  obtained  when  the  cream  has  about  28  to  30  per  cent  of  fat.  Cream 
with  too  high  a  percentage  of  fat  has  a  tendency  to  adhere  to  the  sides  of 
the  churn,  which  causes_difficult  churning  and  increases  the  danger  of  loss 
of  fat  in  the  buttermilk. 

Thin  Cream  Undesirable. — When  cream  is  too  thin  or  has  too  small  a 
percentage  of  fat  in  it,  as  in  the  case  of  hand-skimmed  cream  containing 
from  12  to  20  per  cent  of  fat,  good,  uniform  churning  is  hard  to  secure. 
Such  cream  loses  too  much  fat  in  the  buttermilk  and  also  requires  longer 
churning. 

Methods  of  Ripening  Cream. — Poor  quality  in  farm  butter  is  most 
frequently  due  to  a  lack  of  proper  ripening  of  the  cream  previous  to  churn- 
ing. On  the  farm  it  is  often  necessary  to  store  the  cream  from  two  or 
or  more  days'  milkings  in  order  to  secure  a  sufficient  amount  for  a  churning. 
The  common  method  now  in  use  on  most  farms  is  simply  to  collect  in  a 
cream  can  or  jar  successive  creamings,  until  enough  has  been  secured 
for  a  churning.  Meanwhile  the  cream  is  held  in  the  cellar,  milkhouse, 
back  porch  or  springhouse.  The  temperature  at  which  it  is  held  varies 
with  the  weather,  season  of  year  and  other  conditions.  Under  these 
conditions  the  cream  usually  ripens  or  develops  acid  until  at  the  end  of 
three  or  four  days  it  becomes  sour  and  is  then  stirred  and  churned.  If 
it  is  kept  too  cold  for  ripening  during  this  holding  period,  it  is  warmed 
for  several  hours  and  allowed  to  sour  before  churning. 
\  This  is  a  bad  practice  and  is  responsible  for  many  of  the  taints  and 
off  flavors  found  in  farm  butter.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  temperature 
of  the  cream  is  usually  about  55°  F.,  which  is  a  little  too  low  to  secure 
a  good  growth  of  the  lactic  or  acid-forming  bacteria  which  produce  the 
proper  flavors  in  the  cream.  Some  claim  that  this  average  cellar  tem- 
perature favors  the  proper  conditions  for  the  growth  of  the  bacteria  that 
produce  objectionable  flavors  and  taints  in  cream.  These  undesirable 
bacteria  produce  no  acid,  will  not  grow  well  in  the  acid  medium  and  seem 
to  grow  best  at  a  temperature  of  50°  to  60°  F. 

The  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  135,  has  conducted 
some  experimental  work  to  determine  the  best  way  to  ripen  cream  on  the 
farm.  This  work  indicates  that  there  are  three  other  methods,  any  one 
of  which  will  give  better  results  than  the  storing  of  cream  at  cellar  tem- 
peratures. They  are:  (1)  holding  or  storing  the  cream  at  a  very  low 
temperature  (below  45°  F.)  until  enough  is  secured  for  a  churning,  and 
then  warming  it  up  to  70°  to  80°  F.  and  ripening;  (2)  ripening  the  first 
collection  of  cream  at  once  and  adding  each  skimming  to  it,  from  day  to 
day,  until  a  churning  is  secured;  (3)  adding  a  portion  of  buttermilk  to 
the  first  cream  gathered  and  then  adding  each  skimming  until  enough 
is  secured  for  a  churning. 

The  first  method  is  a  good  one  for  butter-makers  who  have  ice  for 
keeping  the  cream  cold.  Immediately  after  separating  each  day's  cream, 
it  should  be  cooled  to  45°  F.  or  below,  and  held  at  this  low  temperature 


DAIRY    BUTTER-MAKING  151 

until  enough  is  secured  for  a  churning.  It  is  then  warmed  up  to  75°  F. 
and  held  at  that  temperature  until  the  proper  amount  of  acid  is  developed 
in  it.  At  this  temperature  about  twelve  hours  is  required  to  develop  the 
proper  percentage  of  acid. 

The  second  method  is  to  ripen  the  cream  of  the  first  separation  that 
is  to  form  the  new  churning  at  about  75°  F.  until  0.3  per  cent  of  acid  is 
developed.  It  is  then  cooled  to  the  temperature  of  the  springhouse  or 
cellar,  and  each  subsequent  creaming,  after  it  has  been  cooled,  is  added 
to  this  lot  until  enough  is  secured  for  a  churning.  Under  average  conditions 
this  will  give  enough  acid  development  in  the  whole  churning  for  best 
results.  The  ripening  of  the  first  separation  of  cream  develops  a  large 
number  of  lactic  acid  bacteria  and  produces  some  acid,  which  serves  to 
hold  in  check  the  undesirable  types  of  bacteria. 

The  third  method  is  to  add  a  portion  of  buttermilk  of  good  quality 
to  the  first  separation,  and  then  add  each  succeeding  creaming  and 
hold  the  whole  amount  at  cellar  or  springhouse  temperature  until  a 
sufficient  quantity  is  secured  for  a  churning.  If  the  ripening  has  not 
sufficiently  developed  by  that  time  the  temperature  can  be  raised  to 
75°  F.  and  the  cream  allowed  to  ripen  until  the  proper  amount  of  acid 
has  developed. 

The  object  in  the  last  two  methods  is  essentially  the  same,  namely, 
to  hold  in  check  the  undesirable  bacteria  by  having  developed  or  intro- 
duced into  the  cream  a  preponderance  of  the  desirable  bacteria  and  a 
small  amount  of  acid.  The  last  two  methods  are  simple,  handy  and 
require  no  special  apparatus.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  in  the  last 
method  to  make  sure  that  the  buttermilk  comes  from  butter  of  a  good 
flavor  and  quality.  The  using  of  buttermilk  of  medium  or  poor  quality 
is  very  likely  to  produce  butter  of  much  the  same  kind  as  that  from  which 
the  buttermilk  was  secured. 

Amount  of  Acid  to  Develop,  or  Degree  of  Ripening. — Large  amounts 
of  farm  cream  are  ripened  or  soured  too  much  before  churning.  Because 
of  this,  an  old  and  tainted  or  stale  flavor  is  developed.  Cream  ripened 
until  it  is  sharply  sour  usually  contains  from  0.6  to  0.8  per  cent  of  acid, 
which  is  too  much.  The  best  flavors  and  keeping  quality  are  secured  when 
it  is  ripened  so  as  to  contain  about  0.4  to  0.5  per  cent  of  acid.  Where 
no  acid  test  is  used,  this  amount  of  acid  may  be  approximated.  The  cream 
should  taste  only  very  mildly  sour.  Cream  naturally  ripened  at  70°  to 
75°  F.  will  develop  about  this  amount  of  acid  if  held  ten  hours. 

The  Use  of  Starters. — Starters  are  not  much  used  on  the  farm  and 
when  used  are  generally  of  the  natural  kind,  that  is,  made  up  of  buttermilk 
or  good  sour  milk.  They  are  very  desirable,  if  care  is  taken  to  use  only 
good  buttermilk  or  sour  milk,  and  in  most  cases  will  improve  the  quality 
of  the  butter  produced.  They  are  especially  desirable  when  cream  is 
hard  to  churn  because  of  improper  ripening,  and  where  it  is  difficult  to 
secure  proper  ripening.  The  amount  to  use  varies  with  the  con- 


152  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

dition  of  the  cream,  but  in  most  cases  from  10  to  20  per  cent  is  a  suitable 
quantity. 

Natural  Starter. — The  natural  starter  made  from  sour  milk  is  perhaps 
the  best  for  farm  conditions.  To  make  it,  set  several  samples  of  good, 
clean  skim  or  whole  milk  in  small  jars  until  the  milk  becomes  sour.  The 
holding  temperature  should  be  about  70°  F.  When  the  samples  have 
become  sour  they  should  be  examined.  They  should  have  formed  a  good, 
smooth  curd,  free  from  gas  bubbles.  The  flavor  and  taste  should  be  clean 
and  sharply  sour.  The  sample  showing  the  best  flavor  and  condition  of 
the  curd  should  be  selected  for  the  starter.  It  may  be  built  up  in  larger 
quantities  by  adding  the  sample  to  about  ten  times  its  volume  of  clean, 
sweet  skim  milk  and  allowing  the  mixture  to  stand  at  about  70°  F.  until 
it  has  coagulated.  The  coagulated  milk  is  then  the  starter  to  use  in  the 
cream-ripening  process.  It  contains  a  preponderance  of  the  desirable 
lactic  bacteria  which  are  necessary  for  that  process. 

The  Amount  of  Starter  to  Use. — The  amount  of  starter  to  add  to 
cream  varies  from  8  to  50  per  cent.  If  the  starter  is  a  good  one,  the  mere 
added  the  better,  but  if  too  much  be  added  it  will  dilute  the  cream  too 
greatly  and  make  it  hard  to  churn.  About  10  per  cent  is  a  common 
amount  to  use. 

Churning  Temperatures. — The  temperature  at  which  cream  is  churned 
is  very  important.  Properly  ripened  cream  should  be  cooled  down  to  the 
temperature  at  which  it  is  to  be  churned  and  held  at  that  temperature 
at  least  two  hours  to  allow  the  fat  to  become  cool  and  firm  enough  to  churn. 

The  churning  temperature  varies  widely.  It  is  affected  by  the  season 
of  the  year,  kind  of  feed  given  the  cows,  condition  of  the  cream  and  tem- 
perature of  the  churning  room. 

Variations  in  Churning  Temperature. — In  the  spring  and  summer, 
when  the  cows  are  fresh  and  the  feeds  succulent  and  soft,  the  butter-fat 
is  naturally  softer  than  later  in  the  season.  Under  average  conditions 
temperatures  ranging  from  52°  to  56°  F.  will  give  best  results  for  these 
seasons.  This  temperature  should  be  increased  to  about  56°  to  60°  F.  in 
the  winter.  Much  cream  is  now  churned  on  the  farms  at  above  60°  F. 
Experiments  seem  to  indicate  that  the  lower  temperatures  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred, as  butter  is  much  firmer  when  coming  from  the  churn,  does  not  so 
easily  incorporate  buttermilk,  and  will  stand  more  working,  thus  producing 
a  better  body  and  a  more  uniform  quality.  Because  of  the  cream  being 
poorly  ripened  or  abnormal  in  some  way,  it  is  often  necessary  to  use  higher 
temperatures  than  are  here  given.  When  difficulty  in  churning  is  expe- 
rienced, the  cream  should  never  be  raised  in  temperature  by  adding  hot 
water  to  the  churn,  but  should  be  poured  from  the  churn  into  a  can  and 
gradually  raised  a  few  degrees  in  temperature  by  setting  the  can  in  a 
pan  of  warm  water. 

Care  of  the  Churn. — The  proper  care  of  cream  in  the  ripening  process, 
although  very  essential ;  does  not  insure  good  butter,  Good  cream  can 


DAIRY    BUTTER-MAKING  153 

easily  be  spoiled  in  churning.  Unless  the  churn  is  kept  in  good  condition 
it  is  impossible  to  make  good  butter  with  it.  The  churn  should  always 
be  well  scalded  out  and  well  cooled  down  before  using.  There  are  two 
reasons  for  this:  first,  the  hot  water  will  scald  out  and  kill  all  moulds  that 
may  be  growing  in  the  wood  and  will  close  the  pores  of  the  wood  so  that 
the  cream  or  butter  will  not  adhere  to  it;  second,  the  churn  should  be 
cooled  so  that  the  temperature  of  the  cream  will  not  be  raised  while  churn- 
ing and  yield  soft,  greasy  butter. 

Length  of  Time  to  Churn. — The  length  of  time  best  for  churning 
varies  with  the  condition  of  the  cream,  but  ranges  from  15  to  30  minutes. 


FARM  BUTTER-MAKING  APPARATUS.1 

If  the  cream  churns  in  less  than  15  minutes,  the  butter  is  very  likely  to  be 
too  soft  to  work  well  and  will  have  a  poor  body  when  finished.  Cream 
that  requires  much  longer  than  30  minutes  may  be  improperly  ripened 
or  abnormal  in  some  way.  Taking  the  cream  from  the  churn  and  raising 
the  temperature  in  the  manner  suggested  above  will  in  most  cases  over- 
come the  trouble. 

The  churning  should  stop  when  the  butter  begins  to  collect  in  the 
buttermilk  in  granules  from  the  size  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  grain  of  corn. 
Granules  of  this  size  do  not  contain  so  much  buttermilk  as  do  larger  ones. 
The  butter  is  easier  to  wash,  salt  and  work. 

Washing  Butter. — It  is  a  common  practice  on  the  farm  to  wash  butter 
through  several  wash  waters.  This  is  unnecessary  if  the  churning  has 
been  stopped  at  the  right  time.  If  the  granules  are  about  the  size  of  peas 

1  Courtesy  of  Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


154  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

or  grains  of  corn,  one  washing  will  remove  all  the  buttermilk.  Too  much 
washing  has  a  tendency  to  remove  the  finer  flavors  and  give  the  butter 
a  flat  taste.  The  amount  of  wash  water  should  be  about  equal  to  the 
volume  of  cream  churned. 

Temperature  of  Wash  Water. — The  temperature  of  the  wash  water 
may  vary  considerably,  but  it  should  not  be  much  above  or  below  the 
churning  temperature.  Very  cold  wash  water  is  to  be  avoided.  Cold 
water  absorbs  the  flavors  of  the  butter  readily,  causes  brittleness  of  body 
and  lowers  the  quality. 

When  a  low  churning  temperature  is  used,  the  washing  temperature 
may  be  the  same,  and  should  never  be  more  than  4  to  6  degrees  less.  Where 
a  higher  temperature  is  used  for  churning,  the  washing  temperature  may 
differ  as  much  as  4  to  10  degrees  from  that  of  the  churning.  The  wash 
water  should  be  pure  and  clean  and  free  from  odors  or  taints,  as  these 
will  be  readily  absorbed  by  the  butter. 

Preparation  of  Working-Board. — After  the  wash  water  is  drawn  from 
the  butter — unless  a  combined  churn  and  worker  is  used — the  butter 
should  be  taken  out  in  the  loose,  granular  form  and  placed  on  the  working- 
board  or  table.  This  table  should  be  clean  and  thoroughly  wet  with 
cold  water.  Butter  will  stick  to  a  dry,  warm  or  dirty  board. 

Salting. — Fine  dairy  salt  of  the  best  quality  should  be  used.  The 
quantity  varies  with  the  taste  of  the  maker  and  the  markets  on  which 
the  butter  is  sold.  Under  average  conditions  where  the  butter  is 
worked  on  a  hand-worker,  three-quarters  of  an  ounce  of  salt  to  each 
pound  of  butter-fat  is  a  desirable  amount  to  use.  Butter  made  in  a 
combined  churn  requires  heavier  salting,  and  as  much  as  one  and  one- 
quarter  ounces  of  salt  per  pound  of  butter-fat  may  be  required.  This 
larger  amount  is  necessary  because  of  the  wash  water  which  is  held  in 
the  churn. 

The  salt  should  be  evenly  distributed  over  the  granules  of  butter  on 
the  working-board,  and  the  working  may  begin  at  once.  It  is  a  common 
practice  to  let  the  butter  stand  with  the  salt  on  it  for  a  while  before  working. 
This  is  unnecessary  if  the  butter  is  in  a  good  granular  condition,  firm  in 
body  and  the  salt  fine  and  of  a  good  grade. 

Working  of  Butter. — The  working  should  begin  by  first  using  the 
sharp  edge  of  the  worker  to  cut  and  flatten  the  butter  out  into  a  thin 
sheet.  This  sheet  should  then  be  folded  to  the  center  of  the  working-board, 
and  the  process  repeated. 

The  working  of  butter  accomplishes  three  important  things:  It 
evenly  incorporates  the  salt,  removes  the  excess  water  and  makes  the 
body  compact.  The  working  should  be  continued  until  the  excess  water 
no  longer  appears  and  the  salt  is  worked  evenly  through  the  mass.  The 
texture  of  the  body  may  be  ascertained  by  breaking  off  a  piece  of  the 
butter.  The  break  should  show  a  brittle,  grainy  appearance,  similar  to 
that  of  broken  steel. 


DAIRY    BUTTER-MAKING 


155 


When  the  butter  has  been  sufficiently  worked  it  should  be  printed 
into  some  desirable  shape.  The  common  rectangular  one-pound  mould  is 
the  best,  as  it  makes  a  neat,  attractive  print  and  is  easy  to  handle. 

Wrapping  of  Butter. — After  the  butter  is  printed  it  should  be  wrapped 
in  a  good  grade  of  parchment  butter  paper.  This  is  very  essential.  Much 
butter  is  wrapped  in  cloth  or  oiled  paper.  This  is  a  very  bad  practice, 
as  the  cloth  holds  moulds,  which  readily  grow  and  produce  taints  and  odors. 
The  oiled  paper,  if  kept  for  any  length  of  time  in  a  warm  place,  becomes 
very  rancid  and  imparts  undesirable  flavors. 

Value  of  Standard  Product. — It  is  always  advisable  to  have  the  name 
of  the  producer  or  his  farm  name  on  the  wrapper  of  the  butter,  if  it  is 
sold  on  the  market.  If  the  butter 
is  of  good  quality,  this  will  tend  to 
increase  the  sales  and  be  an  in- 
centive to  the  highest  effort  for 
maintaining  uniformity  in  quality. 
The  attractiveness  and  neatness  of 
the  package  always  helps  to  sell  the 
butter,  often  at  much  above  the 
average  market  price. 

Care  of  the  Farm  Churn. — 
After  the  butter  is  taken  from  the 
churn,  the  latter  should  be  rinsed 
out  with  warm  water  and  the  rinsing 
followed  by  a  thorough  washing 
with  very  hot  water.  The  rinsing 
out  with  warm  water  will  remove 
any  buttermilk  which  may  remain 
in  the  pores  of  the  wood.  The  hot 
water  will  remove  any  fat  which 
may  be  left  in  the  churn. 

It  is  never  well  to  use  soap  powders  on  the  interior  of  the  churn,  but 
the  occasional  use  of  a  small  amount  of  dairy  washing  powder  or  lime- 
water  is  beneficial. 

To  keep  the  churn  sweet  and  free  from  odors  and  taints  a  small  handful 
of  lime  placed  in  some  water  in  the  churn  or  in  the  last  rinsing  of  the  churn 
is  very  effective.  It  is  essential  in  good  butter-making  to  see  that  all 
apparatus  used  is  absolutely  clean  and  free  from  undesirable  odors  and 
taints,  as  these  are  quickly  absorbed  by  the  butter. 

Dairy  Apparatus. — In  the  selection  of  dairy  apparatus  there  are 
several  things  which  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  They  are:  Sim- 
plicity of  construction,  ease  of  cleaning,  durability  and  first  cost. 

Care  of  Other  Dairy  Apparatus. — All  other  dairy  apparatus  should 
at  all  times  be  kept  scrupulously  clean  and  free  from  rust.  Pails,  buckets, 
crocks,  etc.,  after  being  used  should  be  rinsed  out  and  washed  well  with 


BUTTER  PEINTER. 


156 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


a  brush  and  a  dairy  washing  powder.  After  they  are  carefully  cleaned 
they  should  be  rinsed  out  and  then  either  scalded  with  very  hot  water 
or  steamed  if  steam  is  available. 

The  cream  separator  should  be  taken  apart  and  well  cleaned  after 
each  milking  and  left  apart  until  its  next  use.  If  it  is  left  unclean,  or 
is  not  well  aired,  bad  taints  and  odors  will  develop  in  the  cream,  causing 
a  poor  quality  of  finished  product. 

All  dairy  apparatus  should  be  placed  in  the  sun  after  it  is  washed, 
as  the  sun  will  quickly  dry  it.  Sunlight  also  acts  as  a  powerful  disin- 
fecting agent.  However,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  appa- 


BUTTER  READY  FOR  MARKET.1 

ratus  is  so  placed  that  there  is  no  danger  of  dust  and  dirt  blowing  in 
on  it. 

Churns. — The  farm  churn  should  be  of  ample  size  for  the  largest 
churning  made  during  the  year.  The  common  barrel  churn  is  the  most 
practical  for  farm  use,  as  it  is  simple,  easy  to  clean  and  very  durable  as 
well  as  economical  in  the  first  cost.  On  farms  where  large  amounts  of 
butter  are  made  a  small  combined  churn,  as  illustrated,  is  very  desirable. 

On  farms  where  more  than  three  cows  are  kept  a  cream  separator, 
of  a  size  depending  upon  the  number  of  cows  kept,  is  advisable.  It  is  best 
to  select  a  make  of  separator  that  is  sold  in  the  community,  so  that  the 
purchaser  can  always  quickly  secure  necessary  repairs.  Cream  separators 
have  been  so  well  perfected  that  there  is  practically  no  difference  in  the 
skimming  efficiency  of  the  several  machines.  They  all  skim  sufficiently 

1  Courtesy  of  Hinde  &  Dauch  Paper  Co.,  Sandusky,  Ohio. 


DAIRY    BUTTER-MAKING  157 

clean,  but  one  should  look  to  simplicity  of  construction  and 
durability  of  wearing  parts. 

Buckets  and  Tinware. — All  buckets  should  be  made  of 
heavy  stamped  metal,  heavily  tinned  and  with  all  joints  and 
corners  smoothly  soldered  so  as  to  leave  no  place  for  dirt  or 
impurities  to  collect.  Buckets  like  those  shown  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter  are  desirable  for  milking  purposes,  as  they 
admit  the  smallest  amount  of  dust  and  dirt  and  are  still 
simple  in  construction. 

Wooden  Apparatus. — Wood  is  best  suited  for  the  con-  

struction  of  certain  dairy  apparatus  such  as  butter  ladles,  butter    ^ 
moulds,  workers,  etc.,  because,  by  proper  treatment,  butter     LADLE. 
will  not  adhere  to  wood  as  it  will  to  other  materials. 

REFERENCES 

'Principles  and  Practice  of  Butter  Making."     McKay  and  Larson. 
'The  Business  of  Dairying."     Lane. 
'  Milk  and  Its  Products."     Wing. 
'Dairy  Farming."     Michels. 
'First  Lessons  in  Dairying."     Van  Norman. 

'Science  and  Practice  in  Cheese  Making."     Van  Slyke  and  Publow. 
'Farm  Dairying."     Laura  Rose. 
Pennsylvania  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  135.      "A  Study  of  Manufacture  of  Butter/' 

''Methods  of  Making  Farm  Butter." 

Purdue  Expt.  Station  Circular  51.     "Producing  Cream  for  Good  Butter." 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 
349.  ''Dairy  Industry  in  South." 
541.  "Farm  Butter  Making/' 


PART  III 

ANIMAL  DISEASES,  CROPPING  AND 
FEEDING  SYSTEMS 


(159) 


CHAPTER  15 

DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT 

BY  DR.  S.  S.  BUCKLEY 
Professor  of  Veterinary  Science  and  Pathology,  Maryland  Agricultural  College 

"You  say  you  doctored  me  when  lately  ill; 
To  prove  you  didn't,  I'm  living  still." 

Domestic  animals  contribute  largely  to  the  benefits  of  country  life, 
and,  aside  from  house  pets,  these  pleasures  are  denied  the  residents  of  towns 
and  cities.  Farms  devoted  to  trucking  and  fruit  growing  may  prove 
financially  profitable,  as  do  mercantile  pursuits,  but  they  fail  to  make  the 
farm  a  home  as  do  those  which  possess  a  varied  assortment  of  species  of 
live  stock. 

Domestic  animals  share  our  labor,  contribute  to  our  food  supply  and 
furnish  the  means  for  improving  our  soil  and  maintaining  its  fertility. 
While  the  different  species  of  domestic  animals  are  materially  unlike  in 
some  respects,  yet  the  general  scheme  on  which  their  conformation  and 
action  is  planned  makes  it  possible  to  apply  similar  broad  rules  for  the  care 
and  management  of  them  all. 

Animals  in  health  are  by  nature  intended  to  serve  man's  purposes 
and,  according  to  the  degree  of  impairment  of  health,  so  is  the  degree  of  their 
usefulness  to  man  affected. 

Strictly  considered,  there  are  not  different  degrees  of  health,  since 
health  signifies  a  normal  condition  of  the  body.  Abnormal  conditions  of 
the  body  occur,  however,  which  are  variable  in  degree,  and  these  constitute 
disease. 

Disease,  therefore,  may  range  from  slight  unrecognizable  disturbances 
of  the  body  functions  to  extremely  complex  modifications  which  terminate 
life  in  death. 

An  animal  is  most  highly  profitable  to  its  owner  when  in  a  normal  or 
healthy  condition,  and  its  value  to  him  diminishes  according  to  the  degree 
of  abnormality  or  disease.  It  is  for  the  stockman,  therefore,  to  interest 
himself  in  maintaining  animals  in  health,  rather  than  in  the  study  of  the 
nature  and  treatment  of  their  diseases,  if  he  is  to  derive  the  greatest  benefits 
from  them. 

The  Essentials  for  Health. — In  order  to  be  most  successful  in  the 
management  of  animals,  a  study  should  be  made  of  the  efficacy  of  sound, 
wholesome  food  and  pure  water;  the  necessity  for  pure  air  and  proper 
exercise;  the  effects  of  proper  dieting,  over-feeding  and  abstinence;  the 

69  161 


162  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

necessity  for  comfortable  quarters,  and  lastly  the  benefits  of  humane  and 
intelligent  treatment.  This  means  familiarity  with  the  laws  of  hygiene 
and  as  far  as  possible  with  the  structures  (anatomical  parts)  and  the 
functions  (normal  actions)  of  the  animal  body.  There  is  a  general  simi- 
larity of  the  organization  of  animal  bodies  and  of  the  human  body,  and  what 
is  bad  for  mankind  is  most  likely  bad  for  animals. 

Knowledge  of  Disease  Should  Precede  Treatment. — No  one  should 
undertake  the  treatment  of  a  disease  of  animals  whose  nature  he  is  not 
familiar  with,  nor  to  administer  medicines  whose  effects  are  unknown  to 
him,  any  more  than  he  should  attempt  to  treat  similar  disorders  in  the 
human.  The  mere  fact  that  one  is  animal  and  the  other  human  does  not 
alter  the  chances  for  success,  nor  prove  more  creditable  to  his  intelligence. 

Stockmen  should  exercise  common  sense  in  the  management  of  animals 
in  health  and  disease,  and  remember  that  there  is  always  to  be  regarded 
the  powerful  effort  on  the  part  of  nature  to  combat  bodily  disturbances 
and  disease.  Intelligent  assistance  would  frequently  restore,  where  indis- 
creet meddling  will  destroy. 

There  is  a  strong  propensity  on  the  part  of  stockmen  to  resort  to  the 
use  of  powerful  remedies  for  all  diseases  without  first  deliberating  on  the 
nature  of  the  disorder,  its  cause,  its  symptoms,  its  course,  its  normal  duration 
and,  finally,  its  rational  treatment.  Such  deliberation  would  frequently 
indicate  that  the  disorder  was  due  to  some  lapse  in  management;  that  some 
of  the  symptoms  were  mere  evidences  of  nature's  effort  to  overcome  the 
disorder;  that  its  normal  cause  and  duration  was  dependent  upon  the 
duration  of  mismanagement  and  that  rational  treatment  should  be  directed 
towards  assisting  rather  than  in  opposing  nature's  efforts.  For  example, 
an  animal  has  been  over-fed  and  diarrhea  results.  More  frequently  than 
otherwise,  such  a  case  is  treated  with  opium  preparations  or  astringents, 
to  check  the  diarrhea,  possibly  with  serious  consequences;  while  on  the 
other  hand,  rational  treatment  would  consist  in  restricting  the  diet,  perhaps 
modifying  it,  and  administering  a  mild  laxative,  mashes,  flaxseed  tea,  or 
raw  linseed  oil,  to  assist  nature  in  her  efforts  at  the  expulsion  of  the  offending 
material  as  shown  by  the  condition  of  diarrhea.  After  the  desired  result 
has  been  secured,  the  animal  is  brought  back,  by  gradually  increased 
amounts  of  food,  to  the  usual  ration  which  had  been  fed. 

Intelligent  and  judicious  management  is  essential,  both  in  preserving 
health  and  in  restoring  it  when  impaired. 

GENERAL  RULES  FOR  MAINTAINING  HEALTH 

1.  Feed  only  sound,  wholesome  grain  and  fodder.    Supply  abundantly 
pure  water,  at  short  intervals. 

2.  Supply  salt  regularly  to  all  animals.     Rock  salt  is  preferable  to 
purified  salt,  as  it  contains  other  needed  elements  than  soda.     Hogs  and 
poultry  need  little  salt  compared  to  other  farm  animals,  excessive  amounts 
being  ooisonous  to  them. 


DISEASES    OF    ANIMALS  163 

3.  Charcoal  may  be  given  occasionally  with  benefit  to  all  animals, 
and  may  be  fed  with  salt. 

4.  Feed  with  extreme  regularity,  and  according  to  the  requirements  of 
animals,  in  quantity  and  nutritive  value. 

5.  Developing  or  growing  animals,  females  with  young,  pregnant 
females,  males  for  breeding  purposes,  work  animals  and  animals  not  at 
work  require  different  feeds,  in  quantity  and  quality. 

6.  Animals  at  pasture  require  attention.    Pasturage  may  be  adequate 
or  it  may  need  to  be  supplemented  with  additional  feed. 

7.  Make  all  changes  in  rations  gradually.     Add  any  new  variety  of 
feed  to  the  ration  in  small  and  successively  increasing  amounts  until  the 
desired  addition  is  secured. 

8.  Unwholesome  food  is  frequently  produced  on  farms,  and,  being 
unmarketable,  is  kept  for  feeding  purposes.     Such  foods  may  be  fed  safely 
if  proper  methods  are  employed. 

Damaged  grain,  soft,  rotten,  mouldy,  worm-eaten  and  otherwise 
unwholesome,  may  be  made  safe  for  feeding  if  it  is  first  shelled  from  the 
cob  or  threshed  from  the  straw  and  then  carefully  fanned  to  remove  the 
light,  badly  damaged  and  unwholesome  grains.  By  the  same  process,  the 
spores  of  mold  and  poisonous  dust  are  largely  eliminated. 

Damaged  fodder  and  hay  may  be  made  less  objectionable  and  safer 
by  shaking  out  as  much  as  possible  the  dust  and  must  as  it  is  removed  from 
the  stack.  It  should  then  be  run  through  a  cutting  box  and  cut  into  con- 
venient lengths.  This  cut  fodder  should  be  mixed  with  a  proper  amount  of 
grain  and  salted  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  of  salt  to  the  hundred  pounds  of 
chop.  Moisten  the  entire  mass  and  after  macerating  for  several  hours,  it 
can  be  fed.  Where  this  is  practiced,  the  chop  box  should  be  kept  scrupu- 
lously clean. 

Comfort. — Animals  may  be  well  bred  and  well  fed  and  yet  not  develop 
nor  thrive  properly  if  kept  in  uncomfortable  surroundings. 

Stables  which  are  comfortable  should  be  well  lighted,  but  the  light 
must  be  admitted  into  the  building  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  subject  the 
animals  to  a  constant  glare  of  bright  sunlight  and  they  should  not  face  dark, 
unlighted  walls.  Stables,  however,  should  be  so  arranged  that  all  parts 
of  the  enclosure  are  well  lighted  with  diffuse  light.  They  should  be  devoid 
of  dark  recesses  which  might  serve  for  the  accumulation  of  filth,  as  breeding 
places  for  vermin  or  for  the  decomposition  of  feed  and  fodder. 

Mangers  and  racks  for  feed  should  be  convenient  alike  for  feeder  and 
animals  and  easy  to  clean.  Refuse  must  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate, 
as  when  moistened  with  saliva  it  sticks  to  the  mangers  and  affords  an  ideal 
place  for  decomposition  processes  and  the  development  of  attendant  poisons. 

Floors  must  be  kept  with  even  surfaces,  and  be  clean.  If  hard  and 
impervious,  they  should  be  well  bedded.  If  porous,  they  must  not  be 
permitted  to  become  foul.  Foot  and  hoof  troubles,  lameness  and  foul 
skins  develop  in  dirty  stalls. 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


The  air  of  stables  must  be  pure.  Any  ventilating  system  which  admits 
an  abundance  of  pure  air  and  allows  the  escape  of  foul  air  is  a  proper  one. 
There  is  no  one  system  suited  to  all  stable  designs.  Muslin  stretched  across 
window  openings,  instead  of  glazed  sash,  makes  a  desirable  covering.  It 
at  thv,  same  time  allows  the  passage  of  air  through  its  meshes  and  subdues 
the  light  from  without. 

Animals  must  be  kept  well  groomed.  It  is  an  old  adage  that  "groom- 
ing is  half  the  feed."  The  skin  of  animals  becomes  dirty  with  dust  from 
without  and  from  the  dried  sweat  and  skin  emanations  from  within  the 
body.  Unless  accumulations  are  removed  through  grooming,  the  natural 
function  of  the  skin  is  impaired  and  debility  results.  Dirty  coats  of  animals 
afford  desirable  breeding  places  for  vermin. 

Proper  light,  pure  air,  suitable  mangers  and  floors,  together  with 
cleanliness  of  stables  and  bodies,  all  tend  toward  the  comfort  of  animals, 
and  the  less  perfect  these  are,  the  more  likely  is  it  that  the  animals  will  be 
affected  with  abnormal  sight,  unhealthy  skin,  disordered  respiration  and 
impaired  digestion,  with  all  their  consequent  ills.  It  is  necessary,  therefore, 
to  study  carefully  the  comfort  of  animals,  to  insure  good  condition  or 
physical  fitness  of  their  bodies. 

Exercise.  —  Regularity  of  exercise  in  the  open  air  is  necessary  for  the 
health  of  all  classes  of  animals.  Animals  closely  confined  in  stables,  even 
though  well  fed  and  watered,  properly  groomed  and  otherwise  well  cared 
for,  will  become  soft,  their  body  tissues  more  or  less  watery.  They  become 
less  resistant  to  disease  and  less  vigorous  in  every  way. 

The  proper  assimilation  of  food  and  bodily  comfort  is  dependent  upon 
proper  exercise.  The  appearance  of  animals  is  deceptive  in  this  respect. 
If  a  lot  of  young  animals  with  similar  treatment  is  divided  and  one  part  is 
allowed  a  paddock  for  exercise  and  the  other  part  confined  to  stalls,  the 
latter  will  usually  appear  to  better  advantage.  They  will  be  well  rounded, 
smooth  and  apparently  in  prime  condition,  compared  with  the  other  lot, 
which  is  rough,  rugged  and  more  or  less  angular.  As  they  mature,  however, 
the  lot  which  has  been  allowed  to  exercise  in  the  open  will  continue  a  steady 
development  to  maturity,  while  the  stalled  lot  will  undergo  a  period  of 
arrested  development  and  fail  totally  in  becoming  large,  robust,  resistant 
animals.  It  is  in  the  young  and  developing  animals  particularly  that 
opportunity  for  exercise  in  the  open  should  be  given. 

Failure  to  provide  this  has  resulted,  among  other  things,  in  the 
unnecessary  susceptibility  of  horses  to  heaves,  or  cattle  to  tuberculosis, 
and  of  hogs  to  thumps,  etc. 

General  Management.  —  Intelligent  management  of  animals,  there- 
fore, may  be  said  to  consist  of  the  following  essentials: 

1.  An  abundant  supply  of  pure  air  at  all  times. 

2.  Proper  food  and  water,  regularly  and  judiciously  provided. 

3.  Good  grooming  for  all  animals  when  stabled. 

4.  Proper  exercise  in  the  outside  air. 


DISEASES    OF    ANIMALS  165 

Nursing. — In  spite  of  intelligent  management  and  due  regard  for  the 
laws  of  hygiene,  disorders  and  disease  of  the  animal  system  will  occur. 
Sick  animals  require  intelligent  care  and  greater  attention  to  details  of 
management  even  than  do  animals  in  health.  Good  nursing  is  of  prime 
importance  in  the  treatment  of  disease. 

Sick  animals  should  be  placed  in  detached,  well-ventilated  and  clean 
box  stalls,  conveniently  located.  Such  stalls  should  be  roomy,  clean, 
cool  and  dry.  In  certain  cases  body  clothing — blankets  and  bandages — • 
are  necessary. 

All  utensils,  buckets,  brooms,  etc.,  used  in  the  care  of  sick  animals 
should  be  kept  clean  and  should  not  be  used  in  other  parts  of  the  stable. 

All  food  not  eaten  should  be  removed  from  the  sick  animal  and  under 
no  circumstances  offered  to  other  animals. 

Bedding  must  be  clean,  sufficient  in  amount  and  comfortable  for  the 
patient. 

Sick  animals  should  be  seen  frequently,  but  should  not  be  disturbed 
more  nor  oftener  than  is  absolutely  necessary. 

Sick  animals  are  more  comfortable  and  improve  more  rapidly  when  the 
bowels  are  in  a  lax  state.  Mashes  and  soft  feed  tend  to  keep  them  in  this 
condition.  In  addition  to  having  laxatives,  mashes,  flaxseed  tea,  apples, 
carrots  or  potatoes  are  serviceable  in  catering  to  their  appetites.  Exposure 
for  a  short  while  daily  to  sunlight  acts  as  a  tonic  to  convalescent  animals 
and  enables  them  to  regain  strength  rapidly. 

Disease. — With  the  appearance  of  disease  in  an  animal,  it  is  essential 
that  its  true  nature  be  speedily  recognized  or  diagnosed.  To  this  end  there 
are  observed  the  modifications  in  the  external  visible  or  otherwise  acces- 
sible parts  of  the  body  which  indicate  the  nature  of  the  internal  changes 
occurring. 

These  modifications  are  perceived  through  one  or  more  of  the  special 
senses:  sight,  revealing  alteration  in  size,  conformation,  color,  etc.;  sound, 
differentiating  cavities  and  solid  parts;  touch,  the  texture,  sensibility  to 
pain,  temperature  variation,  etc. ;  smell,  the  natural  or  modified  odor  and 
even  the  sense  of  taste,  in  milk  examination  for  instance,  serving  an 
important  end. 

In  addition  to  the  immediate  employment  of  the  senses,  the  clinical 
thermometer  gives  accurately  the  internal  temperature,  and  various 
tests  are  at  the  command  of  veterinarians  for  special  examinations.  It  is 
necessary  for  the  stockman  to  recognize  health  and  the  earliest  approach 
of  disease  and  be  capable  of  applying  the  treatment  prescribed.  To  do  so, 
he  must  acquaint  himself  with  a  system  of  examination  which  will  enable 
him  to  fairly  well  approximate  the  condition  of  the  animal,  as  well  as  to 
secure  information  which,  compared  with  later  examinations,  will  show  the 
progress  of  disease. 

The  modifications  in  form  and  function  of  the  body  are  known  as 
symptoms.  By  observing  these  the  disease  is  located,  and  by  them  also 


166  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

its  character  is  shown  or  a  diagnosis  made.  For  correctly  diagnosing  disease 
it  is  necessary  that  all  changes  be  noted. 

The  following  procedure  is  recommended  to  the  stockman  who  should 
make  written  rather  than  mental  notes,  in  order  to  have  positive  and 
complete  information  about  the  patient  prior  to  a  veterinarian's  exami- 
nation, if  such  proves  to  be  necessary. 

Examination  of  Sick  Animals. — 1.  Description  oj  Animal. — This  refers 
to  the  kind  of  animal,  the  sex,  color,  age,  size  and  breed.  This  serves  not 
only  as  a  mark  of  identification,  but  such  information  may  limit  the 
diagnosis  to  certain  diseases  or  may  eliminate  certain  diseases  from 
consideration. 

2.  Characteristic  Pose. — The  attitude  of  the  patient,  whether  standing 
or  lying  down,  and  the  particular  positions  assumed  are  to  be  noted.     The 
mere  pose  of  an  animal  is  more  or  less  significant  in  some  diseases,  e.  g.,  by 
rigidity  of  muscles,  dilated  nostrils,  slightly  extended  tail  and  extension 
of  the  haw  over  the  corners  of  the  eyes  in  the  standing  horse,  picture 
tetanus  or  lockjaw;  the  recumbent  cow  with  muzzle  at  the  flank,  dull  eyes, 
slow  respiration  and  grating  teeth,  with  history  of  calving  within  a  few  hours 
or  days,  designates  calving  fever  or  paralysis,  etc. 

The  physical  condition  of  the  animal  suggests  the  possibility  of  certain 
diseases,  e.  g.,  azoturia,  while  conformation  and  temperament  may  point 
equally  well  to  other  diseases;  e.  g.,  long-coupled,  thin-barreled  and  long- 
legged  horses  are  liable  to  scours. 

3.  The  Skin. — The  condition  of  the  skin  indicates  in  an  accurate  way 
the  condition  of  the  body.     In  its  examination  we  must  take  into  account 
the  disposition  of  the  hair,  the  action  of  the  sweat  glands,  presence  of 
enlargements  or  growths  upon  the  skin,  any  changes  in  the  color  of  skin 
and  whether  these  are  confined  to  the  skin  or  are  evidences  of  general 
disease. 

4.  The  Eye. — An  examination  of  the  eye  will  indicate  the  volume  and 
character  of  the  blood,  as  seen  in  the  visible  capillary  vessels.      The  color 
of  the  conjunctiva  shows  the  condition  of  the  animal  and  the  character  of 
its  blood.     The  discharge  of  tears  and  swellings  about  the  eyes  should  be 
noted  as  important  to  diagnosis. 

5.  Temperature. — The  internal  body  temperature  in  health  varies 
within  certain  narrow  limits,  the  average  being  for — 

Horses..  .  100.0°-101.5°  F. 

Cattle 100.5°-102.5°  F. 

Sheep 102.5°-105.0°  F. 

Hogs 100.5°-104.0°F. 

In  diseases,  these  temperatures  may  range  for — 

Horses 102 . 0°  F.  and  over 

Cattle 103.5°  F.  and  over 

Sheep 104.0°  F.  and  over 

Hogs 104 . 0°  F.  and  over 


DISEASES    OF    ANIMALS  167 

In  all  animals  the  temperature  may  rarely  reach  as  high  as  110°  F., 
but  life  will  soon  terminate  at  such.  The  temperature  must  be  accurately 
gotten  with  a  thermometer  inserted  into  the  rectum  for  at  least  three 
minutes.  The  clinical  thermometer  registers  only  from  95°  to  110°  F.  and 
is  self-registering.  This  allows  ample  time  for  accurate  reading  and  does 
away  with  the  errors  of  estimating  fever  by  the  sensation  of  touch. 

Temperatures  should  be  taken  throughout  the  course  of  the  disease 
and  should  be  taken  at  about  the  same  hour,  once  or  twice  daily. 

Fevers  are  measured  by  temperature  and,  in  addition,  by  noting  the 
accompanying  chill,  the  uneven  surface  temperature,  the  alteration  of  pulse 
and  respirations,  the  alteration  of  appetite  and  the  general  depression 
produced. 

6.  The  Pulse. — The  pulse  or  blood  force  in  the  arteries  indicates  the 
frequency  or  rapidity  of  circulation,  its  rhythm  or  regularity  and  its  quality 
and  character. 

The  normal  pulse  rate  for  animals  is  for — 

Horses 30-40 

Cattle 40-60 

Swine 60-80 

Sheep 70-80 

The  rapidity  of  circulation  or  pulse  frequency  varies  and  is  easily 
influenced  by  age,  sex,  external  temperatures,  exercise,  the  digestive 
processes,  and  by  disease. 

The  regularity  of  the  pulse  beat  is  greatly  modified  according  to  the 
state  of  health. 

The  quality  or  character  of  the  pulse  is  determined  by  the  resistance 
to  pressure  by  the  finger  tips  when  placed  over  the  accessible  arteries. 

7.  The  Respirations. — The   examination  of  the  respiratory  system 
should  be  complete  and  thorough.     The  respirations  are  to  be  noted  as  to 
frequency,  the  manner  in  which  they  are  produced  and  by  the  various 
chest  sounds.     The  normal  respiration  of  animals  is  as  follows: 

Horses 8-16 

Cattle 10-30 

Swine 10-20 

Sheep 12-20 

In  health,  the  respirations  are  carried  on  noiselessly.  There  are  certain 
physiological  or  normal  noises,  as  the  snort  and  the  blowing  sound  made  by 
horses  when  galloping. 

On  the  other  hand,  with  abnormal  conditions,  there  is  the  snoring 
sound  produced  with  the  mouth  partially  open  in  semi-comatose  animals 
from  any  cause;  a  wheezing  sound  from  the  nostril  when  polyps,  tumors 
or  thickening  of  the  bones  occur;  gargling  or  gurgling  sounds  are  produced 
when  mucus  is  present;  and,  finally,  grunting  sounds  occur  when  the 
abdomen  is  greatly  distended. 


168  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING1 

The  breath  of  animals  in  health  is  inoffensive.  In  disease  it  may 
become '  intensely  disagreeable.  It  may  indicate  bad  teeth,  pus  in  the 
sinuses  or  chronic  catarrhal  conditions.  Septic  and  gangrenous  pneumonia 
is  accompanied  by  foulness  of  breath. 

The  nasal  discharges  signify  various  conditions  by  their  quantity, 
color,  consistency,  odor,  and  by  the  presence  of  particles  of  food,  blood,  etc. 

They  afford  an  excellent  opportunity  for  examination  of  the  quantity 
and  the  character  of  capillary  blood  circulation  and  characteristic  evidences 
of  particular  diseases. 

The  cough  is  indicative  of  various  conditions  such  as  heaves,  bronchitis 
or  pneumonia. 

8.  The  Mouth. — An  examination  of  the  mouth  is  of  particular  impor- 
tance, inasmuch  as  it  exposes  to  view  mucous  surfaces  which  are  altered  in 
some  diseases.     It  allows  an  opportunity  for  judging  age,  by  the  characters 
upon  the  teeth;  and  further,  the  amounts  of  secretion  present  indicate  the 
degree  to  which  the  secretory  glands  are  disturbed. 

9.  The  Kidneys  and  Bowels. — Direct  examination  of  the  kidneys  and 
bowels  is  only  safely  conducted  by  experienced  and  trained  men,  but  the 
stockman  has  an  opportunity  to  examine  the  urine  and  the  excrement.    He 
should  note  the  amount,  color,  consistency  and  any  unusual  odor  of  either. 
He  should  observe  the  frequency  of  the  evacuations  and  whether  they  were 
made  without  causing  distress. 

Rational  Measures  for  Treatment. — Not  until  after  having  made  a 
critical  examination  of  the  sick  patient  is  the  stockman  or  attendant 
justified  in  the  attempt  to  supply  remedial  measures. 

If  the  condition  of  the  patient  justifies  it,  the  services  of  a  veterinarian 
should  be  secured  promptly.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  necessity 
for  professional  services,  it  is  advisable  that  a  comparison  be  made  of  the 
symptoms  presented  by  the  animal  and  the  symptoms  described  in  books 
on  diseases  of  animals.  When  these  are  found  to  closely  correspond,  then, 
and  only  then,  should  the  administration  of  medicines  be  begun.  Many 
animals  are  destroyed  or  permanently  ruined  by  unwise  treatment.  The 
eagerness  "to  do  something"  for  these  animals  prevents  proper  deliberation 
and  proper  judgment,  and  the  result  is  that  the  "cure  is  worse  than  the  ill." 

REFERENCES/ 

"Common  Diseases  of  Farm  Animals."     Craig.  -t 
"Care  of  Animals."     Mayo. 
"Diseases  of  Animals."     Mayo. 
Kentucky  Expt.  Station  Circulars: 

5.     "A  Remedy  for  Clover  Bloat." 

7.     "Blackhead  of  Turkey." 

Montana  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  105.     "Intradermal  Test  for  Bovine  Tuberculosis  " 
Ohio  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  280.     "Important  Animal  Parasites." 
Canadian  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin.     "A  Plain  Statement  of  Facts 

Tuberculosis." 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

351.    "Tuberculin  Test." 


DISEASES     OF    ANIMALS 


169 


Farmers'  Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 


366. 
379. 
380. 
439. 
449. 
473. 
569. 
666. 


Hookworm  Disease  of  Cattle." 

Hog  Cholera." 

Loco- Weed  Disease." 

Anthrax." 

Rabies  or  Hydrophobia." 

Tuberculosis." 

Texas  or  Tick  Fever." 

Foot  and  Mouth  Disease/! 


CHAPTER  16 
CROPPING  AND  FEEDING  SYSTEMS 

The  character  of  cropping  and  feeding  systems  on  a  farm  determines  to 
a  considerable  extent  the  success  of  the  farm.  Cropping  systems  from  the 
standpoint  of  crop  production  and  maintenance  of  soil  fertility  will  only 
be  discussed  here  in  a  general  way.  The  discussion  will  pertain  more 
especially  to  the  farm  management  phase  of  it  and  its  relation  to  the 
other  enterprises  of  the  farm. 

Feeding  systems  pertain  to  the  rations  and  methods  of  feeding  live- 
stock and  will  be  discussed  especially  from  the  farm  management  stand- 
point. 

The  Farm  Scheme. — Success  in  farming  does  not  rest  on  the  results 
of  a  single  year.  It  is  not  enough  to  be  successful  in  the  production  of  one 
crop,  but  one  must  continually  grow  a  satisfactory  crop  at  regular  intervals. 
This  calls  for  a  cropping  system  in  order  that  the  chief  crop  or  crops  may 
be  rotated  with  other  crops  to  avoid  the  numerous  difficulties  mentioned 
in  the  chapter  on  rotations. 

From  the  crop  standpoint  the  two  dominant  factors  are  how  to  main- 
tain the  yield  of  cash  crops  year  after  year  and  at  the  same  time  prevent 
any  decline  in  soil  fertility.  When  animals  enter  into  the  farm  scheme 
the  cropping  system  must  also  meet  the  needs  for  animal  feed,  including 
necessary  bedding.  Profits  necessitate  considering  the  enterprises  as  a 
whole.  The  order  in  which  crops  may  be  grown  and  the  feeding  system  to 
be  adopted  is  a  local  question.  It  will  be  determined  by  a  great  many 
factors,  such  as  character  of  soil,  climatic  conditions,  price  of  land,  markets, 
transportation  and  the  personal  preferences  of  the  farmer.  No  definite 
system  can  be  laid  down  that  will  be  best  under  all  conditions,  but  there  is 
a  philosophy  underlying  the  question  that  will  aid  every  farmer  in  working 
out  the  system  best  suited  to  his  conditions. 

Crops  Related  to  Farm  Management. — Crops  are  grown  either  to  sell 
or  to  feed  to  livestock.  One  farmer  may  desire  to  grow  corn  principally, 
another  cotton,  a  third  one  potatoes,  and  still  another  some  other  crop. 
Usually,  several  crops  are  grown.  The  problem  from  the  standpoint  of 
farm  management  will  be  that  of  determining  how  much  of  each  of  the 
different  crops  should  be  grown.  From  the  standpoint  of  crop  production 
the  farmer  is  interested  only  in  the  method  of  growing  the  crop,  and  when 
the  crop  is  harvested  the  task  is  completed.  As  a  farm  manager,  it  will  be 
necessary  for  him  to  decide  what  to  do  with  the  crop.  Will  he  profit  more 
by  feeding  it  or  by  selling  it?  If  so,  when  should  it  be  sold  or  to  what  class 
of  livestock  can  it  be  most  profitably  fed? 

53  '      170 


CROPPING     AND     FEEDING     SYSTEMS        171 

Animals  Related  to  Farm  Management. — Most  farmers  raise  some 
livestock.  They  should  know  the  nature  of  animals  and  their  require- 
ments. The  care,  the  character  of  feed  and  the  breeding  that  will  give  best 
results  are  generally  questions  of  animal  husbandry.  From  the  standpoint 
of  farm  management,  farmers  must  decide  what  classes  of  stock  they  will 
raise.  This  will  be  determined  by  many  factors.  The  class  of  livestock 
to  be  kept  will  depend  largely  upon  the  character  of  the  crops  to  which  the 
farm  is  best  adapted.  On  some  farms,  horses,  sheep  and  poultry  may  be 
most  desirable.  On  others,  dairy  cows  for  market  milk  will  prove  most 
profitable.  The  problem  resolves  itself  into  making  plans  for  a  specific 
farm,  arranging  it  into  fields,  selecting  the  kinds  of  crops  and  the  classes  of 
livestock  that  are  best  adapted  to  it,  and  deciding  upon  the  proper  propor- 
tion of  each.  The  buildings,  equipment  and  capital  must  all  be  considered 
in  this  connection. 

Cropping  and  Feeding  Systems  are  Related. — When  crops  are  of  prime 
importance  on  the  farm,  the  livestock  kept  is  generally  selected  chiefly 
for  the  utilization  of  by-products.  Statistics  show  that  four-fifths  of  the 
farms  in  the  United  States  keep  dairy  cows.  Two-thirds  of  the  farms  make 
butter.  The  small  dairies  are  maintained  largely  on  cornstalks,  straw  and 
hay  of  poor  quality,  and  the  cows  are  pastured  on  land  that  is  not  well 
adapted  to  the  growing  of  crops. 

On  most  farms  a  few  swine  and  50  to  100  head  of  poultry  are  kept 
largely  as  scavengers  to  utilize  what  would  otherwise  be  wasted.  In  some 
instances  a  few  sheep  are  kept  in  the  same  way,  and  more  might  be  kept  in 
small  flocks  at  low  cost,  to  the  advantage  of  both  the  farmer  and  the 
consumer  of  meat. 

On  farms  where  livestock  predominates,  crops  become  subsidiary  and 
the  crops  grown  are  those  that  meet  the  needs  of  the  livestock. 

Adaptation  of  Cropping  and  Feeding  Systems. — Crop  adaptation  must 
take  into  account  the  texture  and  structure  of  soils  as  well  as  the  rotation 
of  crops,  but  there  is  a  further  adaptation  involved  in  the  cropping  system 
as  well  as  in  the  feeding  system.  These  two  are  dependent  upon  each 
other.  If  crops  are  grown  chiefly  for  livestock,  consideration  must  be 
given  not  only  to  yields,  but  also  to  feeding  values.  Corn  generally  pro- 
duces more  digestible  nutrients  per  acre  than  any  of  the  small  grains, 
clovers  or  grasses.  For  example,  12  tons  of  ensilage,  a  fair  yield  on  an  acre, 
contains  approximately  3600  pounds  of  digestible  nutrients.  An  acre  of 
timothy  yielding  2  tons  contains  only  about  1700  pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients.  An  acre  of  clover  yielding  2J  tons  of  hay  contains  about  2300 
pounds  of  digestible  nutrients.  The  clover  also  contains  much  more 
protein  than  the  timothy.  Crops  for  feed  must  be  compared  in  this  way, 
and  definite  information  from  the  standpoint  of  yield  and  feeding  value 
may  be  ascertained  from  the  tables  given  on  "Feeding  Values  of  Different 
Crops"  in  Part  IV.  i 

Adaptation  must  also  be  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  cost  of 


172  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

production  and  the  relation  to  the  labor  problem  of  the  farm  as  a  whole. 
The  relative  cost  per  unit  of  digestible  nutrients  is  the  safest  basis  for 
comparison. 

Usually  the  farms  should  provide  sufficient  pasture  or  the  number  of 
animals  should  be  regulated  in  accordance  with  the  available  pasture. 
Generally  the  cropping  system  should  provide  all  of  the  necessary  pasture 
and  roughage  for  livestock.  To  secure  these  from  the  outside  usually 
entails  much  additional  expense.  In  most  cases  the  farm  may  also  produce 
the  major  portion  of  the  concentrates,  and  in  many  cases  will  produce  all 
of  the  concentrates.  This  will  generally  be  true  in  case  of  the  production 
of  swine,  beef  cattle  and  sheep.  It  is  less  frequently  true  in  case  of  the 


HOGGING  DOWN  CORN.* 

production  of  dairy  products.     There  are  many  factors  that  determine 
the  proportion  that  should  be  produced  and  that  should  be  purchased. 

Cropping  System  Related  to  Future. — The  plan  of  the  cropping  system 
should  take  into  consideration  the  future  productivity  of  the  soil.  Humus 
and  nitrogen  are  most  important  in  this  connection.  No  cropping  system 
will  prove  satisfactory  for  a  long  term  of  years  that  does  not  include  at 
intervals  of  four  to  five  years  a  leguminous  crop  such  as  clover,  alfalfa  or 
some  of  the  annual  legumes.  Nitrogen  in  commercial  form  is  much  more 
expensive  than  that  secured  through  the  production  of  legumes.  There  is 
about  $11,000,000  worth  of  nitrogen  in  the  air  resting  on  each  acre  of  land. 
It  is  of  prime  importance  to  secure  the  soil  nitrogen  for  crop  production 
from  this  abundant  supply.  The  humus  will  be  maintained  largely 

»  Courtesy  of  South  Dakota  Experiment  Station,  Brookins,  S.  D. 


CROPPING    AND     FEEDING     SYSTEMS        173 

through  the  return  of  crop  residues  in  the  form  of  barnyard  manure.  This 
calls  for  the  feeding  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  general  farm  crops. 

Crop  Rotations. — From  the  standpoint  of  the  farm  scheme,  a  rotation 
should  ordinarily  provide  the  roughage  and  pasture  for  the  number  of 
animals  that  are  to  be  kept.  It  should  include  a  sod  and  a  legume  for  the 
supply  of  organic  matter  and  nitrogen.  It.  should  also  include  as  large  an 
area  of  the  profitable  cash  crops  as  can  be  produced  advantageously.  In 
nearly  every  region  there  is  one  cash  crop  or  sometimes  several  that  pay 
better  than  other  crops.  In  the  South  it  is  cotton;  in  the  corn  belt  it  is 
corn;  in  the  New  England  states  it  may  be  hay;  in  some  other  districts  it 
is  apples.  These  crops  should  dominate  both  from  the  standpoint  of  area 
and  the  care  which  they  are  given.  Agricultural  surveys  show  that  the 
most  successful  farmers  follow  this  practice. 

Crops  for  Cash  or  for  Feed. — The  cash  products  may  be  either  soil 
products  or  animal  products.  When  animals  dominate,  the  cropping  system 
should  be  adjusted  to  meet  their  needs.  Many  small  factors  should  be 
considered.  The  amount  of  bedding  required  should  not  be  neglected. 
A  crop  that  is  of  low  value  as  a  cash  crop  may  be  grown  particularly  for  the 
straw  it  supplies  for  bedding. 

Milk  may  be  produced  more  cheaply  by  allowing  the  liquid  excrements 
of  the  cows  to  go  to  waste  rather  than  by  going  to  the  expense  of  securing 
sufficient  bedding  to  absorb  it.  If,  however,  the  saving  of  the  liquid  by  the 
use  of  straw  will  increase  the  yield  of  corn  for  ensilage  and  result  in  12  tons 
per  acre  instead  of  8  and  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  other  crops  that 
are  grown  for  feed,  the  enterprise  as  a  whole  will  undoubtedly  be  much  more 
profitable  by  providing  the  necessary  straw  for  bedding  purposes. 

Straw  contains  a  considerable  part  of  the  fertilizer  constituents  removed 
from  the  soil  by  a  crop  of  grain.  Prices  for  straw  seldom  justify  selling  it. 
If  it  cannot  be  used  as  bedding  for  livestock  and  returned  to  the  fields  in  the 
manure,  it  should  be  returned  in  some  other  way.  The  practice  of  burning 
straw  should  be  universally  condemned.  In  cereal  farming,  the  grain 
should  be  cut  as  high  as  possible,  thus  leaving  the  major  portion  of  the  straw 
on  the  land. 

In  some  localities  a  cash  crop  may  be  grown,  marketed  and  the  pro- 
ceeds enable  the  farmer  to  purchase  twice  as  much  of  a  given  stock  feed  as 
he  could  produce  on  an  equal  area  of  land.  Under  such  conditions  the 
exchange  is  justifiable.  In  dairy  districts  farmers  are  often  able  to  produce 
potatoes,  and  with  the  potatoes  purchase  more  cow  feed  than  they  could 
possibly  produce  on  the  land  devoted  to  potatoes. 

Crops  Related  to  Feed  Requirements. — When  grown  chiefly  for  live- 
stock, the  proportion  of  the  different  crops  should  be  determined  to  con- 
siderable extent  by  the  requirements  of  the  stock.  One  can  ascertain  how 
much  of  each  crop  should  be  produced  by  establishing  what  seems  to  be  the 
best  feeding  system  for  the  animals  in  question  and  calculating  the  year's 
requirements  of  silage,  clover  hay  and  grain  as  concentrates.  Knowing  the 


174  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

yield  for  these  crops  on  the  farm  in  question,  the  relative  acreage  of  each 
can  then  be  approximately  determined. 

Plenty  of  pasture  may  reduce  the  requirements  for  hay.  Where  corn 
does  well,  it  is  generally  cheaper  to  feed  than  oats.  A  horse  or  mule  without 
pasture  generally  requires  about  3  tons  of  hay  or  its  equivalent  annually. 
He  needs  approximately  70  bushels  of  corn  or  100  bushels  of  oats.  Some  of 
each  is  better  than  either  alone. 

Cows  usually  require  about  1  to  1J^  tons  of  grain,  1  ton  of  hay  and  4 
tons  of  silage  per  year.  If  silage  is  not  available,  about  2^  tons  of  hay  per 
cow  is  needed. 

Seven  sheep  require  about  as  much  feed  as  one  cow.  Hens  eat  about 
twice  as  much  in  proportion  to  their  weight  as  other  farm  animals;  100 
hens  are  equivalent  to  a  1000-pound  cow  and  are  considered  an  animal  unit. 


BUILDINGS  ON  A  DAIRY  FARM.1 

Changing  Cropping  System. — The  development  of  the  livestock 
enterprises  on  the  farm  will  often  necessitate  changing  the  cropping  system 
to  meet  the  feed  requirements.  This  will  often  require  increasing  the  area 
of  crops  that  produce  the  roughage.  Such  a  change  may  be  effected  by 
substituting  forage  crops  for  cash  crops  or  by  increasing  the  length  of  the 
rotation.  For  example,  the  amount  of  hay  produced  could  be  very  mate- 
rially increased  by  increasing  the  ordinary  four-crop  rotation  of  equal  areas 
of  corn,  oats,  wheat  and  hay  to  a  five-years'  rotation  of  the  same  crops  in 
which  hay  would  remain  for  two  years.  This  would  increase  the  proportion 
of  total  cropped  land  in  hay  from  cne-fourth  to  two-fifths. 

Two  Rotations  on  the  Same  Farm. — The  best  development  of  the 
cropping  system  often  calls  for  two  rotations.  This  will  be  determined 
chiefly  by  the  nature  of  the  crops  grown  and  the  sequence  that  gives  best 

i  Courtesy  of  Hoard's  Dairyman. 


CROPPING    AND     FEEDING     SYSTEMS 


175 


results.  Potatoes  give  good  results  when  grown  in  a  three-years'  rotation 
consisting  of  potatoes,  small  grain  and  clover.  At  the  same  time  a  longer 
rotation  of  general  farm  crops  may  prove  more  advantageous  for  the  major 
area  of  the  farm. 

On  dairy  farms  where  soiling  crops  are  used,  a  subsidiary  rotation  on 
small  fields  close  to  the  farmstead  may  prove  advantageous  for  the  produc- 
tion of  a  succession  of  suitable  soiling  crops.  These  will  be  supplementary 
to  the  general  farm  rotation  that  occupies  the  large  fields  for  the  remainder 
of  the  farm.  The  two  systems  can  usually  be  worked  together,  so  that  a 
field  is  sometimes  in  one  and  sometimes  in  the  other  rotation. 

Combining  Fields. — Some  farms  are  laid  out  in  many  small,  irregular 
fields  that  cannot  always  be  satisfactorily  combined.  The  number  and 
size  of  fields  may  not  fit  the  most  desirable  rotation.  This  will  involve  a 
plan  of  cropping  the  fields  in  the  most  advantageous  way  to  meet  the  desired 
cropping  system. 

Having  decided  upon  the  length  of  the  rotation,  ascertain  the  acreage 
of  all  fields  and  divide  by  the  years  in  the  rotation.  This  will  give  the  area 
of  each  crop  for  each  year.  With  this  data,  select  the  fields  that  are  to  be 
cropped  the  same  in  any  given  year  in  such  a  way  that  the  acreage  of  two  or 
possibly  more,  may  equal  as  nearly  as  possible  the  desired  acreage  of  the 
crop  to  be  grown. 

Fixed  Rotations  with  Unequal  Areas. — The  livestock  requirements 
often  call  for  an  unequal  acreage  of  the  several  crops.  This  makes  the 
cropping  system  more  complicated,  but  never  impossible  of  solution. 
Fields  of  equal  area  may  be  maintained  without  growing  an  equal  area  of 
each  crop.  Suppose  the  farmer  wishes  to  grow  8  acres  of  potatoes,  20  acres 
of  corn,  28  acres  of  oats,  16  acres  of  wheat  and  40  acres  of  hay,  making  a 
total  of  112  acres  of  crops.  It  will  be  necessary  to  decide  on  the  number  of 
fields  that  give  best  results  in  accommodating  these  crops.  If  the  area  is 
divided  into  four  fields  of  equal  size,  there  will  be  28  acres  in  each.  The 
following  rotation  and  arrangement  might  be  used: 


Field. 

1914. 

1915. 

1916. 

1917. 

1 

8  acres  potatoes 
20  acres  corn 

28  acres  oats 

12  acres  hay 
16  acres  wheat 

28  acres  hay 

2 

28  acres  oats 

12  acres  hay 
16  acres  wheat 

28  acres  hay 

8  acres  potatoes 
20  acres  corn 

3 

12  acres  hay 
16  acres  wheat 

28  acres  hay 

8  acres  potatoes 
20  acres  corn 

28  acres  oats 

4 

28  acres  hay 

8  acres  potatoes 
20  acres  corn 

28  acres  oats 

12  acres  hay 
16  acres  wheat 

Rotations  for  Dairy  Farms. — The  rotations  on  dairy  farms  will  depend 
chiefly  on  the  location  and  the  relative  cost  of  producing  the  dairy  feeds  as 


176 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


compared  with  purchasing.  The  cost  of  production  may  be  relatively 
low,  because  the  manure  from  the  dairy  is  an  important  factor  in  the  crop 
yields,  and  because  labor  will  be  available  for  a  certain  amount  of  field  work 
and  still  fully  meet  the  needs  of  the  dairy.  Corn  as  ensilage  will  prove  an 
important  crop  wherever  it  can  be  successfully  grown.  Hay  for  supplemen- 
tary roughage,  and  oats  or  wheat  for  the  sake  of  the  straw,  will  frequently 
be  found  advantageous. 

Careful  investigations  of  the  success  of  dairymen  show  that  a  combina- 


A  FEED  LOT  RACK  FOR  BOTH  GRAIN  AND  ROUGHAGE.* 

tion  of  dairy  products  and  cash  crops  is  generally  more  successful  than 
dairying  alone. 

Corn,  wheat,  clover  or  clover  and  timothy  mixed  is  a  very  common 
rotation.  Where  wheat  does  poorly,  oats  generally  succeed  and  may 
supplant  the  wheat.  In  other  districts  both  oats  and  wheat  are  advanta- 
geously grown.  Alfalfa  in  limited  acreage  is  generally  advisable.  It 
affords  a  most  excellent  crop,  both  for  hay  and  soiling  purposes. 

Feeding  Systems. — The  feeding  system  for  any  particular  farm  should 
be  based  on  the  class  of  animals,  their  age  and  the  chief  purpose  for  which 
grown.  The  feeding  system  for  the  rearing  of  young  stock  is  quite  different 
than  for  dairy  cows  or  stock  that  is  being  fattened.  Many  farmers  find  it 
advantageous  to  raise  young  stock  and  sell  it  for  feeding  purposes,  while 
others  are  better  equipped  to  purchase  feeding  stock  and  fatten  it  for 

1  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


CROPPING    AND    FEEDING    SYSTEMS       177 

market.  The  cheap  feeds  should  be  utilized  to  the  fullest  possible  extent. 
Waste  should  be  avoided. 

Economy  in  feeding  often  calls  for  two  or  more  classes  of  stock.  Swine 
will  follow  steers  and  secure  much  feed  from  the  droppings  that  otherwise 
would  be  wasted.  They  will  also  utilize  the  skim  milk  and  buttermilk  on 
farms  that  make  butter.  Under  these  conditions  one  may  be  justified  in 
feeding  steers  whole  grain  in  greater  abundance  than  he  would  in  the 
absence  of  swine. 

The  rearing  of  young  stock  generally  necessitates  depending  chiefly 
on  roughage  and  cheap  feed.  The  roughage  develops  bone,  and  so  long 
as  the  animal  is  kept  thrifty  and  develops  a  good  frame,  the  fat  required 
for  marketing  can  be  secured  by  the  use  of  concentrates  during  the  feeding 
period.  In  this  connection  stockmen  are  cautioned  to  avoid  the  stunting 
of  young  stock  by  insufficient  feed.  The  higher  the  grade  and  value  of 
stock,  the  greater  the  necessity  for  quality  in  the  feed  consumed. 

Feeding  System  Depends  on  Type  of  Farming. — Types  of  farming 
differ  greatly  in  different  sections  of  the  country,  depending  on  many 
factors  previously  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  this  subject.  Consequently, 
the  feeding  systems  will  vary  greatly,  depending  on  crops  available.  A 
type  of  farming  that  includes  intensive  crops,  like  tobacco,  that  respond 
abundantly  to  animal  manures,  may  be  justified  in  adopting  a  feeding 
system  in  which  concentrates  predominate.  This  results  in  more  valuable 
manure  which  may  increase  the  value  of  the  cash  crop  to  such  an  extent 
that  stock  can  be  fed  on  such  a  basis,  even  though  there  is  no  direct  profit 
in  the  feeding  enterprise. 

The  type  of  farming,  however,  will  regulate  the  feeding  system  more 
largely  from  the  standpoint  of  the  products  that  are  available  for  feed. 
On  the  grain  farms  in  the  corn  belt,  roughage  in  the  form  of  stover  and 
straw,  supplemented  with  corn  and  oats,  together  with  small  amounts  of 
hay,  should  constitute  the  chief  products  in  the  feeding  system.  In  the 
cotton  belt,  corn  and  annual  legumes  which  can  be  grown  advantageously 
with  cotton,  should  constitute  the  major  portion  of  the  livestock  ration. 
This  may  be  supplemented  with  cottonseed  meal. 

In  the  semi-arid  belt,  grazing  combined  with  alfalfa  and  Kaffir  corn 
would  doubtless  dominate  the  feeding  system. 

Feeding  System  Related  to  Cost  of  Production. — Agricultural  surveys 
show  that  crops  generally  pay  better  than  livestock  for  the  time  put  upon 
them,  but  a  combination  of  crops  and  livestock  is  generally  more  profitable 
than  either  alone.  The  feeding  system  for  livestock  produced  in  combina- 
tion with  cash  crops  will  generally  be  more  economical  than  that  used  when 
livestock  alone  is  sold.  When  full  time  is  spent  upon  crops,  the  waste 
products  are  not  utilized  and  there  is  absence  of  manure  to  maintain  yield; 
and  when  one  devotes  full  time  to  livestock,  time  is  spent  in  a  line  of  produc- 
tion that  is  carried  on  at  a  very  low  margin  of  profit.  It  is  a  mistake  either 
to  overstock  or  understock  on  general  farms.  It  is  a  good  policy  to  keep 


178  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

enough  livestock  to  consume  all  the  by-products.  When  a  farm  is  so  heavily 
stocked  that  all  the  farm  products  are  consumed,  in  years  of  low  yields 
feed  will  have  to  be  purchased,  generally  at  such  a  high  price  as  to  make 
livestock  an  unprofitable  enterprise. 

Feed  Units. — Feeds  of  different  kinds  are  most  readily  compared  by 
using  a  standard.  Corn,  being  the  leading  crop  in  America,  is  the  best 
standard  to  use.  When  corn  is  taken  as  1,  the  equivalent  value  of  a  few 
other  products  is  as  follows:  mixed  hay  A,  alfalfa  .5,  cottonseed  meal 


THE  SCALE  is  A  NECESSARY  ADJUNCT  TO  PROFITABLE  FEEDING.1 

1.25,  wheat  bran,  oats,  malt  sprouts  and  similar  feeds  .91,  corn  silage  .17, 
root  crops  .08.  These  equivalents  vary  somewhat,  depending  on  the 
quality  of  the  product  in  question.  The  value  of  other  products  is  more 
definitely  given  in  the  feeding  tables.  Roughly,  a  cow  or  horse  requires 
about  25  pounds  of  dry  matter  daily.  This  will  generally  contain  from  18 
to  20  feed  units.  The  relation  of  protein,  carbohydrates,  etc.,  will  depend 
on  the  work  that  the  animal  is  doing  or  the  product  that  is  made. 

Profits  from  Cheap  Crop  Products. — The  cheapest  stock  feeds  are 
products  on  which  little  labor  has  been  expended  and  the  cheapest  way  of 

i  Courtesy  of  The  Pennsylvania  Farmer. 


CROPPING    AND    FEEDING     SYSTEMS        179 

feeding  is  to  allow  animals  to  harvest  their  own  feed.  The  grazing  of 
grass  lands  and  the  pasturing  of  cornstalk  fields  is  typical  of  this  process. 
It  is  further  illustrated  by  chickens  and  pigs  in  small  numbers  that  are 
allowed  to  forage  for  themselves  about  the  farm  premises.  The  farmer 
who  produces  pork  on  concentrates  alone  is  at  a  disadvantage  with  the  one 
who  depends  partly  on  hog  pasture. 

Livestock  Gains  in  Relation  to  Feed. — Swine  gain  about  10  pounds  in 
weight  for  each  bushel  of  corn;  steers  require  about  1000  pounds  dry 
matter  to  make  100  pounds  of  gain;  sheep  require  somewhat  less  food  per 
pound  of  gain  than  steers;  100  pounds  dry  matter  in  dairy  rations  will 
produce  about  74  pounds  of  milk  containing  8^2  per  cent  of  fat. 

Better  gains  are  made  with  given  amounts  of  feed  during  the  early 
portions  of  the  feeding  period  than  toward  it^  close.  Young  animals  make 
a  more  profitable  use  of  feed  than  older  on^s.  It  is  seldom  that  the  value 
of  gain  in  fattening  cattle  is  equal  to  the  cost  of  the  feed  consumed.  The 
profit  is  usually  made  on  the  increase  in  value  of  the  total  weight  of  the 
animal.  Generally,  a  feeder  weighing  1000  pounds  can  be  purchased  for 
from  1  to  3  cents  per  pound  less  than  he  will  bring  when  in  prime  condition 
and  weighing  1200  to  1400  pounds. 

Corn  Silage  as  Base  for  Ration. — In  the  corn  belt,  corn  silage  should 
form  the  base  for  feeding  rations.  It  should  be  supplemented  with  dry 
roughage  and  nitrogenous  concentrates  in  such  a  way  as  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  stock  raised.  It  has  a  wide  adaptation  and  may  be  extensively 
used,  either  for  the  production  of  dairy  products,  the  fattening  of  steers  or 
the  feeding  of  horses  and  young  stock. 

The  following  are  a  few  rations  which  include  corn  ensilage  as  taken 
from  an  article  by  J.  G.  Grigsdale,  published  in  the  Tribune  Farmer: 

For  yearling  heifers:  Pounds. 

Corn  silage "  25  to  35 

Straw  or  chaff 4  to    6 

Clover  hay 4 

Bran 2 

For  dry  cows: 

Corn  silage 50  to  60 

Straw 8  to  10 

Clover  hay 4 

Bran 1  to    2 

For  cows  in  milk : 

Corn  silage 45 

Straw 6 

Clover  hay 4  to    6 

Meal  mixture:   Bran,  oats,  gluten  or  oilcake  or  cottonseed 

meal,  equal  parts.     One  pound  of  meal  to  three  or  four 

pounds  of  milk  produced  per  diem. 

For  steers  running  over  winter  (1000  pounds  weight) : 

Corn  silage 60  to  75 

Straw 8  to  12 

Clover  hay 2  to   4 


180  SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 

For  fattening  steers  (1000  pounds) :  Pounds. 

Corn  silage 50  to  60 

Straw 6  to  10 

Hay 3  to    6 

Meal,  starting  at  one  pound,  go  up  to  10  pounds  per  diem. 

Balanced  Rations. — Animals  require  not  only  a  sufficient  amount  of 
feed,  but  also  enough  of  each  of  the  different  food  elements  as  well.  This 
pertains  to  the  relationship  of  protein  to  carbohydrates  and  fat,  and  is 
spoken  of  as  the  nutritive  ratio.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  determined,  as 
above  indicated,  by  the  character  of  animal  and  the  work  performed.  It 
may  vary  somewhat  within  reasonable  limits  without  seriously  affecting 
the  yield  of  animal  products.  The  relative  cost  of  protein  and  carbohy- 
drates often  justifies  some  modification  in  the  ratio. 

Standard  rations  for  different  classes  of  livestock  will  be  found  in  the 
chapters  pertaining  to  each  class  of  animals.  Methods  of  calculating 
rations  are  given  in  the  chapter  on  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  in  Part  I. 

REFERENCES 

Illinois  Expt.  Station  Bulletin  125.     "Thirty  Years  of  Crop  Rotation  on  a  Prairie  Soil." 
Minnesota  Expt.  Station  Bulletins: 

104,  109.     "The  Rotation  of  Crops." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletin  102.      "Planning  a 

Cropping  System."     (In  three  parts.) 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture: 

Year-Book  1902,  pages  342-364.     "Systems  of  Farm  Management  in  the 

United  States." 

Year-Book  1907,  pages  385-389.     "Cropping  Systems  for  Stock  Farms." 
Farmers'  Bulletin  337,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.    "Cropping  Systems  for  New  England 
Dairy  Farms," 


PART  IV 

TABLES  OF  AGRICULTURAL 
STATISTICS 


(181) 


TABLE  I. — PERCENTAGE  OF  TOTAL  DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS 

IN  FEEDING-STUFFS. 

GRAINS   AND    SEEDS. 


Feeding-stuff, 

Total  Dry 
Matter, 
per  cent. 

Digestible  Nutrients. 

Nutritive 
Ratio,  1: 

Protein, 
per  cent. 

Carbohydrates, 
per  cent. 

Fat, 
per  cent. 

Cereals  : 
Dent  corn                       .    .    . 

89.4 
85.0 
84.9 
89.5 
89.6 
89.2 
91.3 
87.6 
92.0 

85.0 
85.4 
88.3 
92.5 

90.8 
89.7 
91.4 

7.8 
6.1 
4.4 
8.8 
8.8 
8.4 
9.5 
6.4 
10.0 

19.7 
16.8 
29.1 
25.1 

20.6 
12.5 
14.8 

66.8 
64.3 
60.0 
67.5 
49.2 
65.3 
69.4 
79.2 
70.3 

49.3 
54.9 
23.3 
13.7 

17.1 
30.0 
29.7 

4.3 
3.5 
2.9 
1.5 
4.3 
1.6 
1.2 
0.4 
2.0 

0.4 
1.1 
14.6 
35.6 

29.0 
17.3 
18.2 

9.8 
10.8 
15.1 
8.1 
6.7 
8.2 
7.6 
12.5 
7.5 

2.5 
3.4 
1.9 
3.7 

4.0 
5.5 

4.8 

Corn  meal                           .    . 

Corn  and  cob  meal 

Wheat  

Oats      

Barley  

Rve 

Rice            

Emmer  (Spelt)  

Legumes: 
Field  pea  

Cowpea  

Soy  bean  

Peanut  

Oil-bearing  seeds: 
Flax  seed 

Cotton  seed  

Sunflower  seed 

CEREAL    BY-PRODUCTS. 


Gluten  meal  

90  5 

29  7 

42  5 

6  1 

1  9 

Gluten  feed  
Germ  oil  meal  
Corn  bran  

90.8 
91.4 
90.6 

21.3 
15.8 
6.0 

52.8 
38.8 
52.5 

2.9 
10.8 
4  8 

2.8 
4.0 
10.5 

Hominy  feed  

90.4 

6.8 

60.5 

7.4 

11.3 

Corncobs 

89  3 

0  5 

44  8 

89  6 

Wheat  bran  

88.1 

11.9 

42.0 

2.5 

4.0 

Wheat  middlings  (standard)  
Wheat  middlings  (flour) 

88.8 
90  0 

13.0 
16  9 

45.7 
53  6 

4.5 
4  1 

4.3 

3  7 

Red  Dog  flour  . 

90  1 

16  2 

57  0 

3  4 

4  0 

Oat  hulls 

92  6 

1  3 

38  5 

0  6 

30  6 

Oat  dust 

93  5 

5  1 

32  8 

2  3 

7  5 

Dried  brewers'  grains  
Wet  brewers'  grains     

91.3 
23  0 

20.0 
4  9 

32.2 
9  4 

6.0 
1  7 

2.3 

2  7 

Malt  sprouts           

90.5 

20  3 

46  0 

1  4 

2  4 

Dried  distillers'  grains     .    . 

92.4 

22.8 

39.7 

11.6 

2.9 

OIL   BY-PRODUCTS. 


Linseed  oil  meal  (O.  P.)  

90.2 

30.2 

32.0 

6.9 

1.6 

Linseed  oil  meal  (N.  P.)  
Cottonseed  meal.  
Peanut  cake  

91.0 
93.0 
89  3 

31.5 
37.6 
42  8 

35.7 
21.4 
20  4 

2.4 
9.6 
7  2 

1.3 
1.1 
0  9 

Corn  germ  cake  .... 

91  4 

15  8 

38  8 

10.8 

4.0 

183 


184 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


TABLE  I. — PERCENTAGE  OF  TOTAL  DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS 
IN  FEEDING-STUFFS  (Continued). 

PACKING  HOUSE   BY-PRODUCTS. 


Feeding-stuff. 

Total  Dry 
Matter, 
per  cent. 

Digestible  Nutrients. 

Nutritive 
Ratio,  1: 

0.09 
0.52 
0.45 

Protein, 
per  cent. 

Carbohydrates  , 
per  cent. 

Fat. 
per  cent. 

Dried  blood 

91.5 
93.0 
89.3 

70.9 
50.1 
66.2 

.... 

2.5 
11.6 
13.4 

Tankage 

Meat  scrap 

MISCELLANEOUS   CONCENTRATES. 


Beet  molasses  

79.2 

4  7 

54  1 

11  5 

Cane  molasses  

74.1 

1.4 

59.2 

42  3 

Molasses  beet  pulp  

92.0 

6.1 

68.7 

11  3 

Dried  beet  pulp  

91.6 

4.1 

64.9 

15  8 

Molasses  alfalfa  feed  

90.9 

9.8 

40.8 

0  9 

4  4 

Cows'  milk  

12.8 

3.4 

4.8 

3  7 

3  9 

Skim  milk 

9  4 

2  9 

5  3 

0  3 

2  1 

Buttermilk 

9  9 

3  8 

3  9 

1  0 

1  6 

HAYS. 


Legumes: 
Red  clover         

84  7 

7.1 

37.8 

1  8 

5  9 

Mammoth  clover  

78.8 

6.2 

34.7 

2  1 

6  4 

Alsike  clover  

90.3 

8.4 

39.7 

1.1 

5  0 

Alfalfa      

91.9 

10.5 

40.5 

0.9 

4  1 

Soy  bean  

88.2 

10.6 

40.9 

.2 

4  1 

89.5 

9.2 

39.3 

.3 

7.3 

Grasses: 
Timothy  

86.8 

2.8 

42  .4 

.3 

16.2 

Redtop     

91.1 

4.8 

46.9 

.0 

10.2 

Blue  grass      

86.0 

4.4 

40.2 

0.7 

9.5 

Bermuda  grass 

92  9 

6  4 

44  9 

6 

7  6 

Prairie  grass 

90  8 

3  0 

42  9 

6 

15  5 

Cereals: 
Oat     

86.0 

4.7 

36.7 

1.7 

8.6 

Barley  

85.0 

5.7 

43.6 

1.0 

8.0 

Millet  

86.0 

5.2 

38.6 

0.8 

7.8 

FODDER   AND    STOVER. 


Corn  fodder              

83.3 

81.8 

2.4 
1.9 

50.4 
43.9 

1.2 
0.5 

22.1 
23.7 

Corn  stover           

STRAWS. 

Oat               

90.8 
90.4 
85.8 
92.9 

1.3 
0.8 
0.9 
0.7 

39.5 
35.2 
40.1 
39.6 

0.8 
0.4 
0.6 
0.4 

31.8 
45.1 
46.0 
57.9 

Wheat  

Barley          

Rve 

AGRICULTURAL    STATISTICS 


185 


TABLE  I. — PERCENTAGE  OF  TOTAL  DRY  MATTER  AND  DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS 
IN  FEEDING-STUFFS  (Continued). 

PASTURE   OR   FORAGE,    AND   SOILING   CROPS. 


Feeding-stuff. 

Total  Dry 
Matter, 
per  cent. 

Digestible  Nutrients. 

Nutritive 
Ratio,  1: 

7.7 
14.1 
12.1 
11.0 
14.6 
20.5 
7.1 
4.3 

5.7 
4.8 
3.6 
5.1 
3.9 

Protein, 
per  cent. 

Carbohydrates, 
per  cent. 

Fat, 
per  cent. 

Grasses: 
Blue  grass 

34.9 
38.4 
27.0 
28.3 
21.0 
20.6 
23.4 
14.3 

29.2 
25.2 
28.2 
16.4 
24.9 

2.8 
1.5 
1.2 
1.3 
0.9 
0.6 
2.1 
2.0 

2.9 

2.6 
3.6 
1.8 
3.1 

19.7 
19.9 
13.4 
13.4 
12.2 
11.6 
14.1 
8.2 

13.6 
11.4 
12.1 
8.7 
11.0 

JO.  8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.4 
0.4 
0.3 
0.4 
0.2 

0.7 
0.5 
0.4 
0.2 
0.5 

Timothy 

Orchard  grass 

Bermuda  grass 

Green  corn 

Sorghum                      .    . 

Rye 

Rape 

Legumes  : 
Red  clover 

Alsike  clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soy  bean 

SILAGE. 


Corn 

Corn  and  soy  bean. 


26.4 
24.0 


1.4 
1.6 


14.2 
13.2 


0.7 
0.7 


11.3 
9.3 


ROOTS. 


Mangel              

9  1 

1  0 

5.5 

0  2 

5  9 

Rutabaga              

11  4 

1  0 

8.1 

0  2 

8  5 

Sugar  beet       

13  5 

1  3 

9  8 

0  1 

7  7 

Carrot          

11  4 

0  8 

7.7 

0  3 

10  5 

Potato        

20  9 

1.1 

15.7 

0.1 

14  5 

186 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


TABLE  II. — DRY  MATTER,  DIGESTIBLE  PROTEIN,  AND  NET  ENERGY  PER  100 
POUNDS  OF  FEED.     (ARMSBY.) 


Feeding-stuff. 


Green  fodder  and  silage: 

Alfalfa 28.2 

Clover,  red 29.2 

Corn  fodder,  green 20. 7 

Corn  silage 25.6 

Hungarian  grass 28 . 9 

Rape 14.3 

Rye. 23.4 

Timothy 38.4 

Hay  and  dry  coarse  fodders: 

Alfalfa  hay 91.6 

Clover  hay,  red 84. 7 

Corn  forage,  field  cured 57 . 8 

Corn  stover,  field  cured 59 . 5 

Cowpea  hay 

Hungarian  hay 92 . 3 

Oat  hay 84.0 

Soy  bean  hay 88 . 7 

Timothy  hay 86.8 

Straws: 

Oat  straw 90. 8 

Rye  straw 92 . 9 

Wheat  straw 90.4 

Roots  and  tubers: 

Carrots 11.4 

Mangels 9.1 

Potatoes 21 . 1 

Rutabagas 11.4 

Turnips 9.4 

Grains: 

Barley 89.1 

Corn 89. 1 

Corn  and  cob  meal 84 . 9 

Oats 89.0 

Pea  meal 89.5 

Rye 88.4 

meat.... 89.5 

By-products: 

Brewers'  grains,  dried 92 . 0 

Brewers'  grains,  wet 24 . 3 

Buckwheat  middlings 88 . 2 

Cottonseed  meal 91 . 8 

Distillers'  grains,  dried: 

Principally  corn , 93 . 0 

Principally  rye 93 . 2 

Gluten  feed,  dry 91 . 9 

Gluten  meal,  Buffalo 91 .8 

Gluten  meal,  Chicago 90 . 5 

Linseed  meal,  O.  P 90.8 

Linseed  meal,  N.  P 90. 1 

Malt  sprouts 89 . 8 

Rye  bran 88 . 2 

Sugar  beet  pulp,  fresh 10.1 

Sugar  beet  pulp,  dried „ 93 . 6 

Wheat  bran 88. 1 

Wheat  middlings 84.0 


Total  Dry  Mat 
ter,  pounds. 


Digestible  Pro- 
tein, pounds. 


2.50 
2.21 
0.41 
1.21 
1.33 
2.16 
1.44 
1.04 

6.93 
5.41 
2.13 
1.80 

8.57 
3.00 
2.59 
7.68 
2.05 

1.09 
0.63 
0.37 

0.37 
0.14 
0.45 
0.88 
0.22 

8.37 
6.79 
4.53 
8.36 
16.77 
8.12 
8.90 

19.04 

3.81 

22.34 

35.15 

21.93 
10.38 
19.95 
21.56 
33.09 
27.54 
29.26 
12.36 
11.35 
0.63 
6.80 
10.21 
12.79 


AGRICULTURAL    STATISTICS 


187- 


TABLE  III. — WOLFF-LEHMANN  FEEDING  STANDARDS. 
(Showing  amounts  of  nutrients  per  day  per  1000  pounds  live  weight.) 


Animal. 

Total  Dry 
Matter, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Protein, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Carbohydrates  , 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Fat, 
pounds. 

Nutritive 
Ratio,  1: 

Oxen  at  rest  in  stall    

18 

0.7 

8.0 

0.1 

11  8 

Fattening  cattle: 
First  period       

30 

2.5 

15  0 

0.5 

6  5 

Second  period         

30 

3.0 

14.5 

0.7 

5  4 

Third  period       

26 

2.7 

15.0 

0.7 

6.2 

Milch  cows,  when  yielding  daily: 
110  pounds  of  milk 

25 

1  6 

10  0 

0  3 

6  7 

16  6  pounds  of  milk  

27 

2.0 

11.0 

0.4 

6.0 

22  0  pounds  of  milk 

29 

2  5 

13  0 

0  5 

5  7 

27  5  pounds  of  milk 

32 

3  3 

13  0 

0  8 

4  5 

Sheep: 
Coarse  wool 

20 

1  2 

10  5 

0  2 

9  1 

Fine  wool 

23 

1  5 

12  0 

0  3 

8  5 

Breeding  ewes,  with  lambs  

Fattening  sheep: 
First  period 

25 
30 

2.9 
3  0 

15.0 
15  0 

0.5 
0  5 

5.6 
5  4 

Second  period  

28 

3  5 

14  5 

0.6 

4.5 

Horses: 
Light  work              

20 

1  5 

9  5 

0  4 

7  0 

Medium  work           

24 

2  0 

11  0 

0.6 

6  2 

Heavy  work        

26 

2  5 

13  3 

0.8 

6.0 

Brood  sows 

22 

2  5 

15  5 

0  4 

6  6 

Fattening  swine: 
First  period 

36 

4  5 

25  0 

0  7 

5  0 

Second  period 

32 

4  0 

24  0 

0  5 

6  3 

Third  period 

25 

2  7 

18  0 

0  4 

7.0 

Growing  cattle  (dairy  breeds)  : 
2-3  months,  150  pounds.  .  .  . 
3-6  months,  300  pounds  
6-12  months,  500  pounds.  .  . 
12-18  months,  700  pounds.  .  . 
18-24  months,  900  pounds.  .  . 

Growing  cattle  (beef  breeds)  : 
2-3  months,  160  pounds  .... 
3-6  months,  330  pounds  
6-12  months,  550  pounds  .  .  . 
12-18  months,  750  pounds.  .  . 
18-24  months,  950  pounds  .  .  . 

Growing  sheep  (mutton  breeds)  : 
4—6  months,  60  pounds  

23 

24 

27 
26 
26 

23 
24 
25 

24 
24 

26 

4.0 
3.0 
2.0 
1.8 
1.5 

4.2 
3.5 
2.5 
2.0 
1.8 

4.4 

13.0 
12.8 
12.5 
12.5 
12.0 

13.0 
12.8 
13.2 
12.5 
12.0 

15  5 

2.0 
1.0 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 

2.0 
1.5 
0.7 
0.5 
0.4 

0  9 

4.5 
5.1 

6.8 
7.5 
8.5 

4.2 
4.7 
6.0 
6.8 

7.2 

4.0 

6—8  months,  80  pounds.  .  .  . 

26 

3  5 

15  0 

0.7 

4.8 

8-11  months,  100  pounds.  .  . 
11-15  months,  120  pounds.  .  . 
15-20  months,  150  pounds.  .  . 

24 
23 
22 

3.0 
2.2 
2.0 

14.3 
12.6 
12.0 

0.5 
0.5 
0.4 

5.2 
6.3 
6.5 

188 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


TABLE  III. — WOLFF-LEHMANN  FEEDING  STANDARDS  (Continued). 


Animal. 

Total  Dry 
Matter, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Protein, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Carbohydrates, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Fat, 
pounds. 

Nutritive 
Ratio,  1: 

Growing  sheep  (wool  breeds)  : 
4-6  months,  60  pounds.  .... 
6-8  months,  75  pounds  
8-11  months,  80  pounds.  .  .  . 
11-15  months,  90  pounds.  .  .  . 
15-20  months,  100  pounds.  .  . 

Growing  swine  (breeding  stock)  : 
2—3  months,  50  pounds.  .  .    . 

25 
25 
23 
22 
22 

44 

3.4 
2.8 
2.1 
1.8 
1.5 

7  6 

15.4 
13.8 
11.5 
11.2 
10.8 

28  0 

0.7 
0.6 
0.5 
0.4 

0.3 
1  0 

5.0 
5.4 
6.0 
7.0 

7.7 

4  o 

3-5  months,  100  pounds  
5-6  months,  120  pounds  
6—8  months,  200  pounds  

35 
32 

28 

4.8 
3.7 
2  8 

22.5 
21.3 

18  7 

0.7 
0.4 
0  3 

5.0 
6.0 

7  0 

8-12  months,  250  pounds  

Growing  fattening  swine: 
2-3  months,  50  pounds  
3-5  months,  100  pounds  
5-6  months,  150  pounds  
6-8  months,  200  pounds  
9-12  months,  300  pounds  

25 

44 
35 
33 
30 
26 

2.1 

7.6 
5.0 
4.3 
3.6 
3.0 

15.3 

28.0 
23.1 
22.3 
20.5 
18.3 

0.2 

1.0 
0.8 
0.6 
0.4 
0.3 

7.5 

4.0 
5.0 
5.5 
6.0 
6.4 

TABLE  IV. — ARMSBY  FEEDING  STANDARDS.* 

FOR   MAINTENANCE. 


CATTLE. 

HORSES. 

SHEEP. 

Live 
Weight, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Protein, 
pounds. 

Net 
Energy, 
therms. 

Digestible 
Protein, 
pounds. 

Net 
Energy, 
therms. 

Live 
Weight, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Protein, 
pounds. 

Net 
Energy, 
therms. 

150 

0.15 

1.7 

0.3 

2.0 

20 

0.03 

0.30 

250 

0.20 

2.4 

0.4 

2.8 

40 

0.05 

0.54 

500 

0.30 

3.8 

0.6 

4.4 

60 

0.07 

0.71 

750 

0.40 

4.95 

0.8 

5.8 

80 

0.09 

0.87 

1000 

0.50 

6.0 

1.0 

7.0 

100 

0.10 

1.00 

1250 

0.60 

7.0 

1.2 

8.15 

120 

0.11 

1.13 

1500 

0.65 

7.9 

1.3 

9.2 

140 

0.13 

1.25 

FOR    GROWTH. 


CATTLE. 


Age, 
months. 

Live 
Weight, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Protein, 
pounds. 

Energy 
Value, 
therms. 

Age, 
months. 

Live 
Weight, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Protein, 
pounds. 

Energy 
Value, 
therms. 

3 

275 

1.10 

5.0 

6 

70 

0.30 

1.30 

6 

425 

1.30 

6.0 

9 

90 

0.25 

1.40 

12 

650 

1.65 

7.0 

12 

110 

0.23 

1.40 

18 

850 

1.70 

7.5 

15 

130 

0.23 

1.50 

24 

1000 

1.75 

8.0 

18 

145 

0.22 

1.60 

30 

1100 

1.65 

8.0 

SHEEP. 


•  Modified  from  Armsby's  original  table  for  the  sake  of  simplicity. 


AGRICULTURAL    STATISTICS 


189 


TABLE  IV. — ARMSBY  FEEDING  STANDARDS*  (Continued}. 

FOR   FATTENING. 


CATTLE. 

SHEEP. 

Live 
Weight, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Protein, 
pounds. 

Net  Energy, 
therms. 

Live 
Weight, 
pounds. 

Digestible 
Protein, 
pounds. 

Net  Energy, 
therms. 

250 

1.1 

2.  4  +  (3.  5  X  daily  gain) 

40 

0.  54  +(3.  5  X  daily  gain) 

425 

1.3 

3.4  + 

60 

0.70+ 

500 

1.5 

3.8  + 

70 

0.30 

0.79  + 

650 

1.7 

4.5  + 

80 

0.28 

0.87  + 

750 

1.7 

5.0  + 

90 

0.25 

0.94  + 

850 

1.7 

5.4  + 

100 

0.24 

1.00+ 

1000 

1.8 

6.0  + 

110 

0.23 

1.06  + 

1100 

1.7 

6.4  + 

120 

0.23 

1.13  + 

1250 

1.6 

7.0  + 

130 

0.23 

1.19  + 

1500 

1.5 

7.9  + 

140 

0.22 

1.25  + 

145 

0.22 

1.28  + 

*  Modified  from  Armsby's  original  table  for  the  sake  of  simplicity. 

TABLE  V. — HAECKER'S  STANDARD  FOR  MILK  PRODUCTION. 
Digestible  nutrients  for  the  production  of  one  pound  of  milk. 


Fat  in 
Milk, 
per  cent. 

Protein, 
pounds. 

Carbohydrates, 
pounds. 

Fat, 
pounds. 

Fat  in 
Milk, 
per  cent. 

Protein, 
pounds. 

Carbohydrates, 
pounds. 

Fat, 
pounds. 

2.5 

0.0446 

0.176 

0.0151 

4.8 

0.0591 

0.276 

0.0236 

2.6 

0.0451 

0.180 

0.0155 

4.9 

0.0597 

0.280 

0.0240 

2.7 

0.0455 

0.185 

0.0159 

5.0 

0.0604 

0.284 

0.0243 

2.8 

0.0460 

0.190 

0.0163 

5.1 

0.0611 

0.288 

0.0247 

2.9 

0.0464 

0.194 

0.0166 

5.2 

0.0618 

0.291 

0.0250 

3.0 

0.0469 

0.199 

0.0170 

5.3 

0.0625 

0.295 

0.0253 

3.1 

0.0474 

0.203 

0.0174 

5.4 

0.0632 

0.299 

0.0256 

3.2 

0.0478 

0.207 

0.0178 

5.5 

0.0639 

0.302 

0.0259 

3.3 

0.0483 

0.212 

0.0181 

5.6 

0.0644 

0.307 

0.0263 

3.4 

0.0486 

0.216 

0.0185 

5.7 

0.0651 

0.310 

0.0266 

3.5 

0.0492 

0.221 

0.0189 

5.8 

0.0656 

0.314 

0.0269 

3.6 

0.0501 

0.225 

0.0193 

5.9 

0.0663 

0.318 

0.0273 

3.7 

0.0511 

0.229 

0.0196 

6.0 

0.0668 

0.322 

0.0276 

3.8 

0.0520 

0.234 

0.0200 

6.1 

0.0679 

0.326 

0.0279 

3.9 

0.0530 

0.238 

0.0204 

6.2 

0.0689 

0.330 

0.0283 

4.0 

0.0539 

0.242 

0.0208 

6.3 

0.0700 

0.334 

0.0286 

4.1 

0.0546 

0.247 

0.0211 

6.4 

0.0710 

0.338 

0.0289 

4.2 

0.0553 

0.251 

0.0215 

6.5 

0.0721 

0.342 

0.0293 

4.3 

0.0558 

0.255 

0.0218 

6.6 

0.0724 

0.345 

0.0296 

4.4 

0.0565 

0.260 

0.0222 

6.7 

0.0728 

0.349 

0.0299 

4.5 

0.0572 

0.264 

0.0226 

6.8 

0.0731 

0.353 

0.0302 

4.6 

0.0579 

0.268 

0.0230 

6.9 

0.0735 

0.357 

0.0305 

4.7 

0.0584 

0.272 

0.0233 

7.0 

0.0738 

0.359 

0.0308 

SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


TABLE  VI. — PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 


Crop. 

Water. 

AsL. 

Protein. 

Crude 
Fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
Free 
Extract. 

Ether 
Extract. 

Com  dent 

10  6 

5 

10  3 

2  2 

70  4 

5  0 

Corn  flint                      .        ... 

11  3 

4 

10  5 

1  7 

70  1 

5  0 

Corn  sw66t                    

8  8 

9 

11  6 

2  8 

66  8 

8  1 

Corn  meal                 

15  0 

4 

9  2 

1  9 

68  7 

3  8 

Corn  cob                  

10  7 

4 

2  4 

30  1 

54  9 

0  5 

Corn  and  cob  meal  
Corn  bran   

15.1 
9.1 

.5 
3 

8.5 
9.0 

6.6 
12.7 

64.8 
62  2 

3.5 

5.8 

Corn  germ  

10.7 

4  0 

9  8 

4.1 

64  0 

7.4 

Hominy  chops 

11  1 

2  5 

9  8 

3  8 

64  5 

8  3 

Germ  meal 

8  1 

1  3 

11  1 

9  9 

62  5 

7  1 

Dried  starch  and  sugar  feed 

10  9 

0  9 

19  7 

4  7 

54  8 

9  0 

Starch  feed  wet              

65  4 

0  3 

6  1 

3  1 

22  0 

3  1 

Maize  feed  Chicago    

9  1 

0  9 

22  8 

7  6 

52  7 

6  9 

Grano-gluten            

5  8 

2  8 

31  1 

12  0 

33  4 

14  9 

Cream  gluten      

8  1 

0  7 

36  1 

1  3 

39  0 

14  8 

Gluten  meal          

8  2 

0  9 

29  3 

3  3 

46  5 

11  8 

Gluten  feed       

7  8 

1  1 

24  0 

5  3 

51  2 

10  6 

Wheat  all  analyses  

10  5 

1  8 

11  9 

1.8 

71  9 

2.1 

Wheat  spring     

10  4 

1  9 

12.5 

1  8 

71  2 

2.2 

Wheat,  winter  

10  5 

1  8 

11  8 

1  8 

72.0 

2.1 

Flour  high  grade 

12  2 

0  6 

14  9 

0  3 

70  0 

2  0 

Flour,  low  grade  

12.0 

2.0 

18.0 

0.9 

63.3 

3.9 

Flour  dark  feeding 

9  7 

4  3 

19  9 

3  8 

56  2 

6  2 

Bran  all  analyses 

11  9 

5  8 

15  4 

9  0 

53  9 

4  0 

Bran  spring  wheat 

11  5 

5  4 

16  1 

8  0 

54  5 

4  5 

Bran  winter  wheat 

12  3 

5  9 

16  0 

8  1 

53  7 

4  0 

Middlings                

12  1 

3  3 

15  6 

4  6 

60  4 

4  0 

Shorts            

11  8 

4  6 

14  9 

7  4 

56  8 

4.5 

Wheat  screenings  

11  6 

2  9 

12  5 

4  9 

65  1 

3.0 

Rye            

11  6 

1  9 

10  6 

1  7 

72  5 

1.7 

Rye  flour  

13  1 

0  7 

6  7 

0  4 

78  3 

0.8 

Rye  bran  

11.6 

3  6 

14.7 

3.5 

63  8 

2.8 

Rye  shorts 

9  3 

5  9 

18  0 

5  1 

59  9 

2  8 

Barley  

10.9 

2.4 

12.4 

2.7 

69.8 

1.8 

Barley  meal 

11  9 

2  6 

10  5 

6  5 

66  3 

2  2 

Barley  screenings                        .  .  . 

12  2 

3  6 

12  3 

7  3 

61  8 

2  8 

Brewers'  grams  wet            

75  7 

1  0 

5  4 

3  8 

12  5 

1  6 

Brewers'  grains  dried  .  '  

8  2 

3  6 

19  9 

11  0 

51  7 

5  6 

Malt  sprouts     

10  2 

5  7 

23  2 

10  7 

48  5 

1.7 

Oats           

11  0 

3  0 

11  8 

9  5 

59  7 

5.0 

Oat  meal   

7  9 

2  0 

14  7 

0  9 

67  4 

7.1 

Oat  feed      

7.7 

3  7 

16  0 

6.1 

59  4 

7.1 

Oat  dust      

6.5 

6.9 

13.5 

18.2 

50  2 

4.8 

Oat  hulls  

7.3 

6.7 

3.3 

29.7 

52.1 

1.0 

Rice  

12.4 

0.4 

7.4 

0.2 

79.2 

0.4 

Rice  meal  

10.2 

8.1 

12.0 

5.4 

51.2 

13.1 

Rice  hulls 

8  2 

13  2 

3  6 

35  7 

38  6 

0  7 

Rice  bran 

9  7 

10  0 

12  1 

9  5 

49  9 

8  8 

Rice  polish                         

10  0 

6  7 

11  7 

6  3 

58  0 

7.3 

Buckwheat                       

12  6 

2  0 

10  0 

8  7 

64  5 

2.2 

Buckwheat  flour      

14  6 

1.0 

6  9 

0  3 

75  8 

1.4 

Buckwheat  hulls        

13.2 

2.2 

4.6 

43  5 

35  3 

1.1 

Buckwheat  bran 

10  5 

3  0 

12  4 

31  9 

38  8 

3  3 

Buckwheat  shorts 

11  1 

5  1 

27  1 

8  3 

40  8 

7  6 

Buckwheat  middlings         .... 

13  2 

4  8 

28  9 

4  1 

41  9 

7.1 

Sorghum  seed  

12.8 

2.1 

9.1 

2.6 

69.8 

3.6 

190 


191 


AGRICULTURAL    STATISTICS 


TABLE  VI. — PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS    (Continued). 


Crop. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Crude 
Fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
Free 
Extract. 

Ether 
Extract. 

Broom-corn  S66d 

11  5 

3  4 

10  2 

7  1 

63  6 

3  0 

Kaffir  seed 

9  3 

1  5 

9  9 

1  4 

74  9 

3  0 

Millet  seed 

14  0 

3  3 

11  8 

9  5 

57  4 

4  0 

Hungarian  grass  seed              

9  5 

5  0 

9  9 

7  7 

63  2 

4  7 

Flaxseed                                     

9  2 

4  3 

22.6 

7  1 

23  2 

33  7 

Flaxseed  ground                     

8  1 

4  7 

21.6 

7  3 

27  9 

30  4 

Linseed  meal,  old  process  
Linseed  meal,  new  process  
Cotton  seed     

9.2 
10.1 
10.3 

5.7 
5.8 
3.5 

32.9 
33.2 
18.4 

8.9 
9.5 
23.2 

35.4 
38.4 
24  7 

7.9 
3.0 
19  9 

Cotton  seed  roasted 

6  1 

5  5 

16  8 

20  4 

23  5 

27  7 

Cottonseed  meal 

8  2 

7  2 

42  3 

5  6 

23  6 

13  1 

Cottonseed  hulls 

11  1 

2  8 

4  2 

46  3 

33  4 

2  2 

Cottonseed  kernels  (no  hulls) 

6  2 

4  7 

31  2 

3  7 

17  6 

36  6 

Cocoanut  cake              

10  3 

5  9 

19  7 

14  4 

38  7 

11  0 

Palm  nut  meal    

10  4 

4  3 

16  8 

24  0 

35  0 

9  5 

Sunflower  seed      

8.6 

2  6 

16  3 

29  9 

21  4 

21  2 

Sunflower  seed  cake  

10  8 

6.7 

32  8 

13  5 

27  1 

9  1 

Peanut  kernels  (no  hulls)  

7.5 

2.4 

27.9 

7  0 

15  6 

39  6 

Peanut  meal  

10.7 

4.9 

47.6 

5  1 

23  7 

8  0 

Rape  seed  cake 

10  0 

7  9 

31  2 

11  3 

30  0 

9  6 

Pea  meal 

10  5 

2  6 

20  2 

14  4 

51  1 

1  2 

Soy  bean 

10  8 

4  7 

34  0 

4  8 

28  8 

16  9 

Cowpea 

14  8 

3  2 

20  8 

4  1 

55  7 

1  4 

Horse  bean                                   .  .  . 

11  3 

3  8 

26  6 

7  2 

50  1 

1  0 

Corn  fodder,  field  cured  
Corn  stover  field  cured          .    ... 

42.2 
40  5 

2.7 
3  4 

4.5 
3  8 

14.3 

19  7 

34.7 
31  5 

1.6 
1  i 

Corn  husks  field  cured   

50  9 

1  8 

2  5 

15  8 

28  3 

0  7 

Corn  leaves,  field  cured  

30  0 

5  5 

6  0 

21  4 

35  7 

1  4 

Corn  fodder,  green  

79  3 

1  2 

1  8 

5  0 

12  2 

0  5 

Dent  varieties,  green  
Dent,  kernels  glazed  green  
Flint  varieties,  green  

79.0 
73.4 
79.8 

1.2 
1.5 
1.1 

1.7 
2.0 
2  0 

5.6 
6.7 
4  3 

12.0 
15.5 
12  1 

0.5 
0.9 
0  7 

Flint  kernels  glazed  green 

77  1 

1  i 

2  7 

4  3 

14  6 

0  8 

Sweet  varieties  green 

79  1 

13 

1  9 

4  4 

12  8 

0  5 

Leaves  and  husks  green     

66  2 

2  9 

2  1 

8  7 

19  0 

1  i 

Stripped  stalks  green   

76  1 

0  7 

0  5 

7  3 

14  9 

0  5 

HAY  FROM  GRASSES: 
Mixed  grasses  

15.3 

5  5 

7  4 

27  2 

42  1 

2  5 

Timothy,  all  analyses  

13.2 

4.4 

5  9 

29  0 

45  0 

2  5 

Timothy,  cut  in  full  bloom  

15.0 

4.5 

6.0 

29.6 

41  9 

3  0 

Timothy,  cut  soon  after  bloom  .... 
Timothy  cut  when  near  ripe 

14.2 
14  1 

4.4 
3  9 

5.7 
5  0 

28.1 
31  1 

44.6 

43  7 

3.0 

2  2 

Orchard  grass                      .    . 

9  9 

6  0 

8  1 

32  4 

41  0 

2  6 

Redtop,  cut  at  different  stages  .... 
Redtop  cut  in  full  bloom  

8.9 
8.7 

5.2 
4  9 

7.9 
8  0 

28.6 
29  9 

47.5 
46  4 

1.9 
2  1 

Kentucky  blue  grass  

21.2 

6.3 

7.8 

23  0 

37  8 

3  9 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  cut  when  seed 
is  in  milk  

24.4 

7.0 

6.3 

24.5 

34  2 

3  6 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  cut  when  seed 
is  ripe 

27  8 

6  4 

5  8 

23  8 

33  2 

3  0 

Hungarian  grass 

7  7 

6  0 

7  5 

27  7 

49  0 

2  1 

Meadow  fescue 

20  0 

6  8 

7  0 

25  9 

38  4 

2  7 

Indian  rye  grass 

8  5 

6  9 

7  5 

30  5 

45  0 

1  7 

Perennial  rye  grass                      .    . 

14  0 

7  9 

10  1 

25  4 

40  5 

2  1 

Rowen  (mixed)  

16.6 

6.8 

11.6 

22.5 

39.4 

3.1 

SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


TABLE  VI. — PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS    (Continued). 


Crop. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Crude 
Fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
Free 
Extract. 

Ether 
Extract. 

HAY  FROM  GRASSES  (Continued)  : 
Alixed  grasses  and.  clov6rs 

12  9 

5  5 

10  1 

27  6 

41  3 

2  6 

Barley  hay  cut  in  milk 

15  0 

4  2 

8  8 

24  7 

44  9 

2  4 

Oat  hay  cut  in  milk 

15.0 

5  2 

9  3 

29  2 

39  0 

2  3 

Swamp  hay  ...                   .    . 

11.6 

6  7 

7  2 

26  6 

45  9 

2  0 

Salt  marsh  hay         .        

10.4 

7  7 

5  5 

30  0 

44  1 

2  4 

Wild  oat  grass          

14.3 

3  8 

5  0 

25  0 

48  8 

3  3 

Buttercups  

9.3 

5  6 

9  9 

30.6 

41  1 

3  5 

White  daisy  

10.3 

6.6 

7.7 

30.0 

42  0 

3  4 

Johnson  grass 

10.2 

6  1 

7  2 

28  5 

45  9 

2  1 

FRESH  GRASS: 
Pasture  grass  

80  0 

2  0 

3  5 

4  0 

9  7 

0  09 

Kentucky  blue  grass  

65  1 

2  8 

4.1 

9  1 

17  6 

1  3 

Timothy,  different  stages  

61  6 

2  1 

3.1 

11  8 

20  2 

1  2 

Orchard  grass,  in  bloom  

73  0 

2.0 

2.6 

8.2 

13  3 

0  9 

Redtop,  in  bloom  

65  3 

2.3 

2.8 

11.0 

17.7 

0  9 

Oat  fodder 

62  2 

2  5 

3  4 

11  2 

19  3 

1  4 

Rye  fodder 

76  6 

8 

2  6 

11  6 

6  8 

0  6 

Sorghum  fodder             k 

79  4 

1 

1  3 

6  1 

11  6 

0  5 

Barley  fodder 

79  0 

8 

2.7 

7  9 

8  0 

0  6 

Hungarian  grass 

71  1 

.7 

3.1 

9  2 

14  2 

0  7 

Meadow  fescue  in  bloom           .    . 

69  9 

.8 

2.4 

10.8 

14  3 

0  8 

Italian  rye  grass,  coming  in  bloom  . 
Tall  oat  grass,  in  bloom  

73.2 
69  5 

2.5 
2.0 

3.1 

2.4 

6.8 
9.4 

13.3 

15  8 

1.3 

0  9 

Japanese  millet  

75  0 

1.5 

2.1 

7.8 

13  1 

0  5 

Barnyard  millet 

75  0 

1  9 

2  4 

7  0 

13  1 

0  6 

HAY  FROM  LEGUMES: 
Red  clover              .             .... 

15  3 

6.2 

12  3 

24  8 

38  1 

3  3 

Red  clover  in  bloom     

20  8 

6.6 

12  A 

21  9 

33  8 

4  5 

Red  clover,  mammoth  

21  2 

6.1 

10.7 

24.5 

33  6 

3  9 

Alsike  clover 

9  7 

8  3 

12  8 

25  6 

40  7 

2  9 

White  clover 

9  7 

8  3 

15  7 

24  1 

39  3 

2  9 

Crimson  clover 

9  6 

8  6 

15  2 

27  2 

36  6 

2  8 

Japan  clover                                .    . 

11  0 

8.5 

13  8 

24  0 

39  0 

3  7 

Alfalfa     .       .                 

8  4 

7.4 

14.3 

25  0 

42  7 

2  2 

Cowpea     

10  7 

7.5 

16.6 

20  1 

42  2 

2  2 

Soy  bean       

11  3 

7.2 

15.4 

22.3 

38  6 

5  2 

Pea  vine        

15.0 

6.7 

13.7 

24.7 

37  6 

2.3 

Vetch 

11  3 

7  9 

17  0 

25  4 

36  1 

2  3 

Serradella 

9  2 

7.2 

15  2 

21  6 

44  2 

2  6 

Flat  pea 

8  4 

7.9 

22  9 

26  2 

31  4 

3  2 

Peanut  vines  (no  nuts)                .    . 

7  6 

10.8 

10  7 

23  6 

42  7 

4  6 

Sainfoin                                        .... 

15  0 

7.3 

14.8 

20  4 

39  5 

3  0 

FRESH  LEGUMES: 
Red  clover,  different  stages  
Alsike  clover  

70.8 

74.8 

2.1 
2.0 

4.4 
3.9 

8.1 
7.4 

13.5 
11.0 

1.1 
0.9 

Crimson  clover 

80  9 

1  7 

3.1 

5  2 

8  4 

0  7 

Alfalfa 

71  8 

2  7 

4.8 

7  4 

12  3 

1  0 

Cowpea 

83  6 

1.7 

2.4 

4  8 

7  1 

0  4 

Soy  bean                                       .    . 

75  1 

2.6 

4.0 

6  7 

10  6 

1  0 

Serradella                  

79  5 

3.2 

2.7 

5.4 

8  6 

0  7 

Horse  bean          

84  2 

1.2 

2.8 

4.9 

6.5 

0  4 

Flat  pea  

66.7 

2.9 

8.7 

7.9 

12.2 

1.6 

AGRICULTURAL    STATISTICS 


193 


TABLE  VI. — PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  (Continued). 


Crop. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Crude 
Fiber. 

Mitrog  en- 
Free 
Extract. 

Ether 
Extract 

STRAW: 
Wheat            .            .                

9  6 

4  2 

3  4 

38  1 

40  4 

3 

Rve. 

7  1 

3  2 

3  0 

38  9 

46  6 

2 

Oat  

9  2 

5  1 

4  0 

37.0 

42  4 

3 

Barley   

14  2 

5  7 

3.5 

36.0 

39  0 

5 

Wheat  chaff  

14  3 

9  2 

4.5 

36.0 

34  6 

4 

Oat  chaff  
Buckwheat  straw 

14.3 
9  9 

10.0 
5  5 

4.0 
5  2 

34.0 
43  0 

36.2 
35  1 

.5 

a 

Soy  bean 

10  1 

5  8 

4  6 

40  4 

37  4 

1  7 

Horse  bean 

9  2 

8  7 

8  8 

37  6 

34  3 

1  4 

SILAGE  : 
Corn  

79.1 

1  4 

1  7 

6.0 

11.0 

0  8 

Sorghum  

76.1 

1  l 

0  8 

6.4 

15.3 

0  3 

Red  clover  

72.0 

2  6 

4.2 

8.4 

11.6 

1  2 

Soy  bean 

74  2 

2  8 

4  1 

9  7 

6  9 

2  2 

Apple  pomace 

85  0 

0  6 

1  2 

3  3 

8  8 

1  i 

Cowpea  vine 

79  3 

2  9 

2  7 

6  0 

7  6 

1  5 

Cow  and  soy  bean  vines  mixed  .... 
Field  pea  vine 

69.8 
50  1 

4.5 
3  5 

3.8 
5  9 

9.5 
13  0 

11.1 
26  0 

1.3 
1  6 

Barnyard  millet  and  soy  bean  .    . 

79  0 

2  8 

2  8 

7  2 

7  2 

1  0 

Corn  and  soy  bean  
Rve 

76.0 
80.8 

2.4 
1  6 

2.5 
2.4 

7.2 
5.8 

11.1 
9  2 

0.8 
0  3 

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS: 
Potato             

78  9 

1  0 

2  1 

0  6 

17  3 

0  1 

Common  beets    

88  5 

1  0 

1  5 

0  9 

8  0 

0  1 

Sugar  beets  .      .    .    . 

86  5 

0  9 

1  8 

0  9 

9  8 

0  1 

Mangels     

90  9 

1  1 

1  4 

0  9 

5  5 

0  2 

Turnip  

90  5 

0  8 

1  1 

1  2 

6  2 

0  2 

Rutabaga  

88  6 

1  2 

1  2 

1  3 

7  5 

0  2 

Carrot  

88  6 

1  0 

1  1 

1  3 

7  6 

0  4 

Parsnip 

88  3 

0  7 

1  6 

1  0 

10  2 

0  2 

Artichoke 

79  5 

1  0 

2  6 

0  8 

15  9 

0  2 

Sweet  potato 

71  1 

1  0 

1  5 

1  3 

24  7 

0  4 

MISCELLANEOUS  : 
Cabbage 

90  5 

1  4 

2  4 

1  5 

3  9 

0  4 

Spurry 

75  7 

4  0 

2  0 

4  9 

12  7 

0  8 

Sugar  beet  leaves  .... 

88  0 

2  4 

2  6 

2  2 

4  4 

[0  4 

Pumpkin,  field  
Pumpkin  garden  

90.9 
80  8 

0.5 
0  9 

1.3 
1  8 

1.7 

1  8 

5.2 

7  9 

0.4 
0  8 

Prickly  comfrey  
Rape  
Acorns,  fresh  

88.4 
84.5 
55.3 

2.2 
2.0 
1.0 

2.4 
2.3 
2.5 

1.6 
2.6 
4.4 

5.1 
5.4 
34  8 

0.3 
0.5 
1  9 

Apples    

80.8 

0.4 

0.7 

1.2 

16  6 

0  4 

Cow's  milk 

87  2 

0  7 

3  6 

4  9 

3  7 

Cow's  colustrum 

74  6 

1  6 

17  6 

2  7 

3  6 

Mare's  milk 

91  0 

0  4 

2  1 

5  3 

1  2 

Ewe's  milk 

81  3 

0  8 

6  3 

4  7 

6  8 

Goat's  milk 

86  9 

0  9 

3  7 

4  4 

4  1 

Sow's  milk 

80  8 

1  1 

6  2 

4  4 

7  1 

Skim  milk   gravity             .    .    . 

90  4 

0  7 

3  3 

4  7 

0  9 

Skim  milk,  centrifugal        .... 

90  6 

0  7 

3.1 

5  3 

0  3 

Buttermilk  .  .  .  ,  

90.1 

0.7 

4.0 

4.0 

1.1 

194 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


TABLE  VI. — PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  (Continued). 


Crop. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Crude 
Fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
Free 
Extract. 

Ether 
Extract. 

MISCELLANEOUS  (Continued)  : 
Whey                   

93  8 

0  4 

0  6 

K.    1 

01 

Dried  blood      

8  5 

4  7 

84  4 

•    *    . 

o   c 

Meat  scrap   

10  7 

4  1 

71  2 

OQ 

IQ  7 

Dried  fish      

10  8 

29  2 

48  4 

•    •    * 

n« 

Beet  pulp            .       .... 

89  8 

0  6 

0  9 

2  4 

6    Q 

Beet  molasses     

20  8 

10  6 

9  1 

KQ     K 

.  .  . 

Apple  pomace     

76  7 

0  5 

1  4 

3  9 

16  2 

1     Q 

Distillery  slops  

93  7 

0  2 

1  7 

0  6 

2  8 

0  Q 

Dried  sediment  from    distillery 

slops.  . 

5  0 

11  3 

27  4 

8  0 

36  1 

12  3 

TABLE  VII. — COMPOSITION  AND  AMOUNTS  OF  MANURE  PRODUCED  BY  DIFFERENT 
KINDS  OF  FARM  ANIMALS.* 


Kind  of  Animal  and 
Kinds  of  Food  Fed. 

Analysis. 

Amount  per  1000  Pounds 
Live  Weight. 

Water. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Phos- 
phorus. 

Potas- 
sium. 

Pounds 
DPaCy. 

Pounds 
YPeearr. 

Pounds 
Absorb- 
ents 

T?ear. 

Total 
Tons 
Farm 
Manure 

YPelr, 

Sheep.  —  Fed  hay,  corn,  oats; 
or  hay,  wheat  bran,  cotton- 
seed meal  and  linseed  meal 

59.52 

0.77 

4.10 

0.59 

34.1 

12,446 

5,000 

8.7 

Swine.  —  Fed  skim  milk,  corn 
meal,  meat  scraps;  or  corn 
meal,  wheat  bran  and  lin- 
seed meal  

74.13 
75.25 

0.84 
0.43 

0.17 
0.127 

0.32 
0.44 

83.6 
74.1 

30,514 
27,046 

5,000 
3,000 

17.7 
15.0 

Cattle.  —  Fed  hay,  silage, 
beets,  wheat  bran,  corn 
meal  and  cottonseed  meal 

Horses.  —  Fed  hay,  oats,  corn 
meal  and  wheat  bran  

48.69 

0.49 

0.114 

0.48 

48.8 

17,812 

3,000 

10.5 

NOTE. — The  analyses  and  amounts  of  manure  produced  by  farm  animals,  as  shown  in  this  table, 
are  from  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station,  and  the  estimates  of  pounds  absorbents  per  year  from  "  Farm 
Management,"  by  Andrew  Boss.  It  is  estimated  that  under  average  farm  conditions  50  per  cent  of  the 
elements  of  fertility  in  farm  manures  is  lost  by  leaching  and  fermentation.  Direct  hauling  of  manure 
to  the  field  or  composting  in  concerete  pits  will  prevent  much  of  this  loss. 

*  From  "Field  Management  and  Crop  Rotation,"  by  Parker. 


AGRICULTURAL    STATISTICS 


195 


TABLE  VIII. — LIST  OF  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES  AND  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


STATE. 

NAME  OF  INSTITUTION. 

LOCATION  or 
COLLEGE. 

LOCATION  or 
EXPERIMENT 
STATION. 

Alabama  .  . 

Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute  .                        . 

Auburn 

Auburn 

Tuskegee  Institute 
Uniontown 
Tucson.. 
Fayetteville 
Berkeley 
Fort  Collins 
Storrs,  New  Haven 
Newark 
Gainesville 

Experiment 

Honolulu 
Moscow 
Urbana 
La  Fayette 
Ames 
Manhattan 
Lexington 

Baton  Rouge 
New  Orleans  (sugar) 
Crowley  (rice) 
Calhoun,  North 

Orono 
College  Park 

Amherst 
East  Lansing 
University  Farm, 
St.  Paul 

Agricultural 
College 

Columbia,  College 
Mountain  Grove, 
(fruit) 
Bowman 
Lincoln 
Reno 
Durham 
New  Brunswick 
State  College 
Ithaca  (Cornell) 
Geneva  (State) 
Raleigh  and  West 
Raleigh 

Agricultural 
College 
Wooster 
Stillwater 

Corvallia 
State  College 

Mayaquez  (Federal) 
Rio  Piedras  (In- 
sular) 
Kingston 

Arizona  

Agricultural  School  of  the  Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial 
Institute  .   .   . 

Tuskegee  Institute. 
Normal 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  for  Negroes 

College  of  Agriculture  of  University  of  Arizona  
College  of  Agriculture  of  University  of  Arkansas  
College  of  Agriculture  of  University  of  California  

Tucson  
Fayetteville  
Berkeley  

California  
Colorado  
Connecticut  .  .  . 
Delaware  
Florida  

Georgia  

Hawaii  
Idaho  

The  State  Agricultural  College  of  Colorado  

Fort  Collins  
Storrs 

Connecticut  Agricultural  College.  .  .  . 

Delaware  College  

Newark    

College  of  Agriculture  of  University  of  Florida 

Gainesville 

Florida  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  for  Negroes  
Georgia  State  College  of  Agriculture  
Georgia  State  Industrial  College.  .  . 

Tallahassee 
Athens  

Savannah 
Honolulu 

College  of  Hawaii 

College  of  Agriculture  of  University  of  Idaho  

Moscow.  .  . 

Illinois  

College  of  Agriculture  of  University  of  Illinois                    .... 

Urbana 

School  of  Agriculture  of  Purdue  University 

La  Fayette 

Iowa  
Kansas  
Kentucky  

Louisiana  

Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts  

Ames  

Kansas  State  Agricultural  College 

Manhattan 

The  College  of  Agriculture  of  State  University 

The  Kentucky  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute  for  Colored 

Frankfort 
Baton  Rouge  

Scotland  Heights, 
Baton  Rouge 
Orono  
College  Park  

Princess  Anne 
Amherst  
East  Lansing  
University  Farm, 
St.  Paul  
Agricultural 
College  

Louisiana  State  University  and  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College                           

Maine 

Southern  University  and  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College 

College  of  Agriculture  of  University  of  Maine  
Maryland  Agricultural  College  

Maryland  

Massachusetts  . 
Michigan  
Minnesota  

Mississippi  
Missouri  

Princess  Anne  Academy,  Eastern  Branch  of  the  Maryland 
Agricultural  College  

Massachusetts  Agricultural  College.  ...               

Michigan  Agricultural  College  

College  of  Agriculture  of  University  of  Minnesota  
Mississippi  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  

Alcorn  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  
College  of  Agriculture  of  University  of  Missouri 

Alcorn 
Columbia 

Montana  
Nebraska  

Montana  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts  
College  of  Agriculture  of  University  of  Nebraska  
College  of  Agriculture  of  University  of  Nevada  . 

Bozcman 

Lincoln  
Reno 

Nevada  
New  Hampshire 
New  Jersey  
New  Mexico  .  .  . 
New  York  

North  Carolina 

North  Dakota.. 
Ohio 

New  Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts  .... 
Rutgers  College  _  
New  Mexico  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts 

New  Brunswick  — 
State  College  
Ithaca  

West  Raleigh 

New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  
The  North  Carolina  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts 
The  Agricultural  College  for  the  Colored  Race 

Greensboro 
Agricultural 
College  

North  Dakota  Agricultural  College  

College  of  Agriculture  of  Ohio  State  University 

Columbus  
Stillwater  

Oklahoma  

Oregon  
Pennsylvania  .  . 
Porto  Rico  

Rhode  Island.. 

Oklahoma  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  
Agricultural  and  Normal  University  . 

Langston 
Corvallis  
State  College  

Mayaquez 

Oregon  State  Agricultural  College  

School  of  Agriculture  of  Pennsylvania  State  College  
College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts  of  University  of 
Porto  Rico 

Rhode  Island  State  College  

196 


SUCCESSFUL    FARMING 


TABLE  VIII. — LIST  OF  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES  AND  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  (Continued}. 


STATE. 

NAME  OF  INSTITUTION. 

LOCATION  OF 
COLLEGE. 

LOCATION  OF 
EXPERIMENT 
STATION. 

South  Carolina. 

South  Dakota.. 
Tennessee  
Texas  

The  Clemson  Agricultural  College  of  South  Carolina  

Clemson  College.  .  . 

Orangeburg 
Brookings  
Knoxville  
College  Station.... 
Prairie  View 
Logan  

Clemson  College 

Brookinga 
Knoxville 
College  Station 

Logan 
Burlington 

Blacksburg(College) 
Norfolk  (truck) 

Pullman 
Morgantown 

Madison 
Laramie 

The  Colored  Normal    Industrial  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College  of  South  Carolina  
South  Dakota  State  College  of  Agricultural  and  Mechanic  Arts 
College  of  Agriculture,  University  of  Tennessee  
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of  Texas  
Prairie  View  State  Normal  and  Industrial  College 

Utah  

The  Agricultural  College  of  Utah  
College  of  Agriculture  of  University  of  Vermont 

Vermont  
Virginia  

Burlington  

The  Virginia  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  and  Poly- 
technic Institute  

Blacksburg  

Washington.... 
West  Virginia.. 

Wisconsin  
Wyoming  

The  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute  

Hampton 
Pullman  
Morgantown  

State  College  of  Washington                                              

College  of  Agriculture  of  West  Virginia  University  

The  West  Virginia  Colored  Institute  
College  of  Agriculture  of  University  of  Wisconsin     

Institute 
Madison 

Laramie.  

TABLE  IX. — How  TO  ESTIMATE  AMOUNT  OF  GRAIN  IN  BINS  AND  HAT  IN 

Mow  OR  STACK. 

SMALL  GRAIN  AND  SHELLED  CORN. 

Length  multiplied  by  width  multiplied  by  average  depth  in  feet  gives  the  cubic 
feet  of  grain.  This  multiplied  by  8  divided  by  10  equals  the  bushels. 

Example : — A  bin  of  wheat  is  8  feet  wide  by  16  feet  long  and  the  average  depth  of 
wheat  is  6  feet. 

8X16X6  X  8  =614 

FOR  BUSHELS  OF  EAR  CORN. 

Multiply  the  cubic  feet  occupied  by  ear  corn  by  4  and  divide  by  10. 

FOR  TONS  OP  HAY. 

If  hay  has  stood  for  60  days  or  more  and  mow  or  stack  is  deep,  divide  cubic  con- 
tents in  feet  by  400.  For  shallow  mows  or  stacks  that  have  stood  only  30  days  or 
less,  divide  by  600.  For  intermediate  conditions,  divide  by  500  more  or  less,  depending 
on  conditions.  The  cubic  feet  in  a  stack  may  be  obtained  as  follows:  Subtract  the 
width  from  the  over  (the  "over"  is  the  distance  from  the  ground  on  one  side  over  the 
stack  to  the  ground  on  the  other  side),  divide  by  the  height,  then  multiply  successively 
by  the  over,  the  width  the  length,  and  by  .225, 


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